Category: Health

In Part III, we looked into the preparation of the wick for making candles, and in parts IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII, we looked into the different waxes. In parts IX and X, we looked into the fragrance and colourant ingredients. Each of the materials and ingredients used play a role in the burning properties and health effects of the candle.

Once the wax has been chosen, melted, mixed with any fragrance and/or colour, and stirred thoroughly it is ready for the next step: moulding, pressing/extrusion, or dipping. (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Candle.html).

Moulding

Moulding can be done by hand or by using manual or continuous moulding machines,. The continuous moulding machines are made to make candles in large groups. The exact process for preparing the moulds and wicks, and the method for pouring, depend on the type of candle and wax, and whether you are preparing the mould by hand or through a machine.

Clean moulds should be used to improve results. These moulds may be made from tin, aluminum, polyurethane, polycarbonate, rubber, silicone, latex, and more. Aluminum moulds are a popular choices because they leave a smooth finish without seams and are cheaper and easier to clean. However, they are not flexible and a releasing agent may be sprayed on the mould to help remove the candle. Certain waxes may shrink after heating and cooling. Some moulds, such as polyurethane, are flexible but have a strong odour. Glass containers are generally used for making container candles.

Moulds are usually preheated so that wax flows evenly and to allow for better side adhesion and to eliminate moisture or get rid of any “chill.” Only dry heat should be used and not hot water.

A wick is then introduced into the mould. The procedure used depends on the type of mould and candle being made. The wick may be pulled through a hole at the base of the mould and secured across the top. In a continuous moulding machine, the wick may be passed from a spool located beneath the machine. Another method uses a wick pin (a long metal pin that may come in a variety of diameters) to create a hole for the wick to be inserted in later.

The wax is cooled down to the lowest temperature possible, or slightly above its melting point, before it is poured into the mould. In the case of a moulding machine, the wax may be poured into a moulding table above the moulds, where it works its way down. If pouring by hand, make sure to poor slowly. The wax should reach just below the edge of the mould, though it does depend on the type of mould and style of candle. The wax is left to cool.

Many waxes naturally shrink or sink in, or concave, when cooling and a second pour may be needed. A jacket may be filled with cold water and placed around each mould to speed up the cooling process.

The temperature and humidity levels of the room all make a difference on the pour temperature and amount of preheating needed for the container or mould.

Once the candle has completely solidified, it can be removed. The removal process depends on the type of mould. Do not force the candle out, but gently work it out. You may have to tap the bottom of the mould and gently tug the wick pin, or you may grab the candle, and gently work it away from the mould. A hair dryer may also be used to soften the wax enough to help get it loose.

In a continuous moulding machine, the finished candle is pulled upwards out of the mould, which allows the wicks to thread through the moulds again for the next batch of candles.

The wicks are then trimmed to the correct size.

Pressing/Extrusion

Pressing involves compressing powdered or crushed paraffin wax into a candle shape with a press, which can include mechanical presses, hydraulic presses, or extruders.

Mechanical presses are used to make small-diameter candles with a pre-shaped wick hole, while hydraulic presses are used to make candles of various sizes with pre-inserted wick or a pre-shaped wick hole.

In extrusion, the wax and the wick are compressed in a pipe or cylindrical chamber under high pressure. The wax is then forced through a coned shaped exit, where the machine extrudes it as a long, continuous strand which is cut to specific sizes.

Hand Rolling

The candles may also be hand rolled or dipped. Hand rolled involving tightly rolling sheets of wax, such as in the case of rolled beeswax candles. These candles tend to trap more air, and thus burn faster.

Dipping

Dipping involves continuously dipping the prepared wick into melted wax until it adheres and achieves the desired thickness. Candles may also be dipped into clear or coloured lacquers to create a particularly shiny surface.

The finished candle may also be hand-painted and embellished with flower petals or other objects or accessories. Candle making is a science, but it is also a creative endeavour that involves constant experimentation. Even if you are not a candle maker, you can still enjoy looking into the techniques used in preparing these candles.

The aim of both candle maker and consumer should be the same on one factor: safety. Unless the candle has been made purely for decorative purposes and will not be lit, it should be constructed to provide a cleaner burn with minimal soot or smoking. The material should be non-toxic, eco-friendly, sustainable, and renewable.

In the next blog post in this series, we will go into some tips to keep in mind when selecting a candle as well as health and safety concerns.

In the previous blog post, we looked into candle fragrances. Another additive that plays a significant role in the burning properties and health effects of the candle is the colouring ingredients.

When wax is obtained for use in making candles, it is usually white or cream in colour. A notable exception to that is unbleached beeswax candles, which have a natural golden hue.

The interest in adding dyes to candles is relatively recent. Original candles, such as those made from tallow, beeswax, seeds, and other materials were not usually coloured for aesthetics, though some colour may result depending on the materials being used. The primary factors that influenced the materials chosen for candles were smell and burning properties, such as the production of less smoke.

Candles now are not only chosen for a pleasant odour and cleaner burn, but for decoration. Sometimes, these decorative candles are never burned. When choosing a candle with a particular odour, the consumer may also expect the candle to possess a colour that reflects that the scent. For instance, if the candle has the scent of cinnamon, they may expect it to also be bronze in colour. Most colourants for candles are synthetic. New shades, hues, and formulas are introduced every year.

Unfortunately, as in the case of fragrances, colourant formulas are considered propriety and the manufacturers do not have to reveal the ingredients they use.

Colourants can come in a variety of forms, including liquids, gels, oils, wax chips, solids, powders, and pigments, and can come from a number of sources, including herbs, flowers, berries, nuts, roots, resins, beans, clays, oxides, ochers, metals, minerals, insect and animal extracts, and synthetic compounds. Because wax is insoluble in water, colourants that contain water or glycerine will not work. Food colouring is a type of water based colour that will not mix with wax.

Two main categories of colourants are dyes and pigments.

Dyes are the most common form of colourant in candles because they are easily combustible and dissolve in liquids or other substances. Depending on the composition, they may be water or oil soluble. They may come chip, block, liquid, or powder form.

Chip and block dyes are made of wax, which can include paraffin or vegetable based, with a pre-measured amount of dye.

Dye chips come in a wide variety of colours and are easy to use. You simply drop one into the wax at the beginning of the melting process. If using multiple chips, you may want to wait until the previous chip has dissolved before adding another one.

Blocks are more concentrated than chips and are best suited for colouring larger quantities of wax. They can be used for smaller quantities by shaving pieces off, but this makes it harder to measure and get consistent results.

Liquid dye is the most concentrated and only a few drops are needed. It is easier to measure, which helps in getting consistent results. The disadvantage to liquid dye is that it may have a strong, unpleasant odour that may affect the candle fragrance if a lot is used.

Powdered dye is extremely concentrated and provides the base for most other dyes. It comes in a limited range of colours, but can be blended to create more. This type of dye may need to be mixed with solvents or oils when used in wax to help with dispersion and prevent undissolved particles.

The intensity and colour of the dye will vary by manufacturer. Dyes used in soy wax will appear more pastel.

One of the most common colourants used in candles is aniline dyes. Aniline dyes are manufactured from the chemical aniline. Aniline is an artificially produced chemical that was first obtained in 1826 by the destructive distillation of indigo, but is now commonly derived from benzene, a toxic, volatile compound present in coal tar and petroleum. It may also be prepared from phenol and ammonia.

Aniline is used in the manufacture of: dyes and dye intermediates for fabric, leather, wood, food, and more; rubber processing chemicals; pharmaceutical products; photographic chemicals; isocyanates for the urethane industry; herbicides; fungicides; and diphenylamine for the rubber, petroleum, plastics, agricultural, explosives and chemical industries.

The chemical is toxic by inhalation of the vapour, absorption through skin, and ingestion, but the extent of its effect on health depend on the amount, type, and duration of the exposure. Significant exposure occurs when working with the chemical, and can result in the formation of methemoglobin, a form of hemoglobin (the protein in red blood cells that is responsible for transporting oxygen from our lungs to the cells in our body) that is not able to bind to oxygen. Some methemoglobin occurs naturally, but too much can result in insufficient delivery of oxygen.

Symptoms associated with aniline toxicity and increased methemoglobin formation include headache, fatigue, dizziness, irregular heart rhythm, and even loss of consciousness or death. Aniline can be irritating to the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract. Long-term exposure can affect the nervous system, cause liver damage, and and may cause the destruction of red blood cells.

Amounts of colourants in candles are said to be of minute quantities that have little to no affect on health, but without knowing the exact formula and concentration, there is no guarantee.

Pigments consist of very fine particles that do not dissolve. They can be made from natural sources or synthesized, and are categorized as organic or inorganic. Organic pigments are carbon-containing compounds that can be from insect, animal, or plant matter, such as herbs, spices, flowers, roots, and resins.

Inorganic pigments can include natural compounds such as natural iron oxide, bentonite mineral, natural micas, and natural zinc oxide; and synthetic compounds such as synthetic iron oxides, titanium dioxide, chromium oxide green, ultramarines, and synthetic micas. While natural pigments may not contain some of the harsh chemicals that synthetic pigments do, some of them may still be laced with dangerous components, such as heavy metals.

The pigments currently used as colouring agents for candles are usually man-made. Similar to fragrances, they may be nature identical. They may have the same chemical structure as minerals or other compounds found in the earth or in plants.

Pigments should only be used on the exterior of the candle, usually by dipping the candle in it. They do not burn well and may clog the candle wick and result in increased smoking or cause the wick to stop burning. Many people have used melted crayons to colour candles, but this is not recommended since it may contain pigments or other particles that may clog the wick.

There are many different types of pigment or dye compounds that are available. Most synthetic dyes or pigments are derived primarily from coal tars and petrochemicals, but it is nearly impossible to list all the ingredients that are used, particularly since manufacturers do not have to disclose formulas or ingredients.

Common colourants may also contain solvents, which can include carcinogens such as toluene, xylene, and benzene, though there are some that use vegetable based solvents and oils.

Conventional candle colourants are specially formulated so at not to interfere with the burning of the candle, but that doesn’t mean that they do not contain potentially hazardous compounds that could be released in the air during the combustion process when the candle is lit.

True all-natural candle colourants aren’t generally available to purchase. Most natural, organic and plant derived dyes are water soluble, which means they cannot be used in candles. You can create your own colours by infusing spices/herbs such as turmeric, paprika, beet, and plant leaves in oil (known as oil infusion).

One method of oil infusion involves melting wax in a kettle or double boiler and then dropping in a heat sealable tea bag or a coffee filter tied with string or a twist tie that is filled with herbs. Let the herbal bag steep on low heat for several hours, or until the colour of the herbs tint the wax, before removing. The coloured wax can be used as is to make a candle, or it can be blended into other waxes to provide some colour.

Spices added directly to hot wax may act more like a pigment. Mashed fruit, such as blackberries or blueberries, and dried and/or crushed flower petals may also be used to create colour. One should always use caution when adding substances directly to candle wax, since they have the potential of clogging the wick and preventing its ability to burn properly.

If making your own candles, be careful not to add too much colour. Too much colourant can clog the wick and affect overall scent. The type and amount of colourant you use depends on the size, shape, and type of wax of the candle. Also, be careful when handling colourants since they can stain surfaces, skin, clothing, and other material, and may cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.

Coloured candles may fade over time due to heat, light, fragrance and other agents in the candle.

Now that we have looked into the fragrance and colourant ingredients used and their effect on the candle, in the next blog post we’ll look into the final step in the manufacturing or candle making process: moulding, pressing/extrusion, or dipping.

Waxes may come in pellet, flakes, or block forms. In candle making or manufacturing process, this wax measured to the amount you need and then heated and melted into a near-liquid state in metal kettles or a double-boiler system. The size and type of the melting system depends on the quantity of wax being used. “Wax melted by direct flame can become dark-coloured or can contain small pieces of carbon char” (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Candle.html).

The temperatures needed depend on the type of wax being used. Achieving the proper temperature is a crucial factor in creating the correct structure and uniform appearance of the wax. If the temperature is either too hot or too cold for the type of wax being used it can cause poor adhesion and may result in the candle being too hard, brittle, or soft.

This molten wax may then go through further filtration and at this stage any fragrances and dyes are added.

Fragrances

One of the leading factors that influences a consumer’s decision to buy a candle is fragrance. The scent of the candle can help mask other scents, such as sweat, and can help promote relaxation.

Because wax is not water soluble, colouring that contains water does not work, and so oils are used. Before using in candles these fragrance oils may be tested for solvency, absorption, flash point, specific gravity, and flammability. Additives such as vybar may also be used to increase the wax’s ability to retain higher fragrance loads.

Scent throw is the strength (intensity) and radius of the fragrance that is released from the candle. Cold scent throw is the aroma emitted when the candle is stored, and hot scent throw is the aroma emitted when the candle is lit or burning. A good scent throw (a strong scent that carries) is dependant on a proper burn pool. Most of the the aroma that comes from the fragrance in a candle is released through evaporation of the hot wax pool. Some of the scent may be released when the oil travels up the wick and its vapour combusts.

The aroma emitted from scented candles are a combination of three notes: the top note, the middle note, and the base note. These levels of scent work together to create a scent that is long lasting and pleasant.

The top note is the lightest, and is the initial impression you get when you first smell the fragrance oil or candle. It is the most volatile, which means it tends to evaporate the quickest. The middle note is the “body” of the fragrance and is the most prominent. It is smelled after the top notes have faded, a process that can take 10 to 20 minutes. The base note is the heaviest. It is smelled last, and can linger in the air for hours after the candle is extinguished. The base notes are what give the fragrance lasting qualities (“staying power”) and are essential in achieving good scent throw.

Fragrances that contain high levels of heavy bases notes such as musk may require a larger wick in order to travel up the wick and evaporate.

Some fragrance oils will travel up the wick more easily than others. They will also have different flash points and specific gravity. Flash points is the temperature at which the oil can combust when exposed to a flame. A candle with a higher flash point and specific gravity requires a hotter burning wick to allow the fragrance to evaporate out of the wax, while a candle with a lower flash point and specific gravity requires a smaller wick.

Each chemical component in a fragrance has a different flash point, which leads to widely variable flash points in the oils. Adding fragrances with a flash point that is lower than that of the wax may cause it to be “burned,” or deteriorated, resulting in a weak scent.

Finding the right concentration of fragrance depends on several factors, such as the type of wax, the size and shape of the finished candle, and the brand, type and components of the fragrance. Temperature of the wax is also a critical factor when incorporating the fragrance and to prevent the fragrance from dissipating or binding uniformly to the wax.

Two main types of fragrances used in candles include: essential oils and synthetic fragrance oils. Essential oils are derived from a natural substance, such as plant material, flowers, leaves, wood and grass, while synthetic fragrance oils may be reproduced synthetically using scientific methods.

Essential oils are the liquids obtained from distilling any part of a plant, including the seeds, roots, bark, stems, leaves, fruit, flowers, and branches. Therapeutic/aromatherapy essential oils are distilled directly from the plant itself without the use of additives.

Although essential oils are natural, that does not mean they are all suited for use in candles. Not all essential oils are meant to be subjected to high heat and can release harmful compounds. The combustion can change the molecular structure of the essential oil, which can destroy any potential medicinal or aromatherapy benefits it might have had and may make it unsafe.

An example is limonene. Limonene is a compound that occurs naturally in plants, such as in the peel of oranges and lemons. When you peel the lemon or orange, or crush the peel, some of the limonene is released into the air. Once released into the air, this limonene may react with trace amounts of naturally occurring ozone, causing one in every two limonene molecules to mutate into formaldehyde (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/12103003/Why-scented-candles-could-cause-cancer.html).

When released in small amounts, such as in the case of that released from orange or lemon peels, it is not known to be toxic. Limonene is still an important compound for health when consumed. However, candles may contain higher concentrations that may be released into the air when burned. This may result in the formation of higher concentrations of formaldehyde.

To use essential oils, you want to select those that can handle high temperatures, such as those produced through steam distillation, and then add them to the wax at low temperatures. Only certain waxes, such as soy and coconut wax, can melt at low enough temperatures to do that. Essential oils produced through pressing or solvent extraction may be too delicate to withstand the heat.

Trace amounts of the solvent can remain in the essential oil if it is not completely dissolved out before use. For that reason, it is recommended to look for solvent free essential oils.

Essential oils are more expensive than synthetic fragrances, and do not provide the same variety of scents or scent strength. They may also not blend as easily in waxes.

They do provide more depth in their aroma, and do not contain nearly as many carcinogens (cancer-causing substances) and other hazardous chemicals. You can also combine essential oils to create your own unique blend.

Diluents (a diluting agent) may be added to essential oils to thin them out so that they can travel up the wick and burn correctly. Diluents may include synthetic substances such as Isopropyl myristate, or di-Octyl Adipate, or natural substances such as fractionated coconut oil or soy oil.

A synthetic fragrance may be made from “natural” and synthetic ingredients, of which there is over 3000. These ingredients may include a carrier base, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, toluene, benzene, synthesizers, phthalates, and other synthetic compounds. Many of these chemicals are derived from petroleum. They may also contain natural isolates, a single chemical that is isolated from a plant and has a scent.

Phthalates are a group of chemicals often used as plasticizers, substances added to plastics to make them flexible, resilient, and easier to handle. They are also used in cosmetics, hairspray, fragrances, insecticides, and a number of other products. In fragrances, they are used as solvents, blenders, surfactants and fixatives to hold colour and scent and make them last longer.

While some phthalates have not currently been shown to have any effect on health, others, including diethyl phthalate (DEP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) have been linked to endocrine disruption (they can mimic or behave like certain hormones and interfere with normal hormonal activity in the body), altered reproductive function and development, fertility problems, organ toxicity, and a potential carcinogen. Children and pregnant women in particular should be cautious of using products that contain certain phthalates.

The full effect of phthalates on human health is not yet fully known or comprehensively studied. Europe has regulated and banned the use of some of these phthalates, including DEP, but they are still allowed in North America, where no labelling is required for fragrances.

Many of the natural ingredients in fragrances are still synthetic in that they are synthesized, or made, in a lab instead of being extracted. These types of hand-made “natural” compounds are known as nature-identical because they possess a chemical structure that is similar to its essential oil counterpart. Completely synthetic chemical compounds are those that do not exist in nature.

These ingredients are usually in the form of a liquid, powder, or crystalline, and must be dissolved by solvents to create the fragrance oil. Similar to essential oils, a diluent may also be used to adjust the density of the oil so that it can be pulled up the wick to be burned. It may also be added to some fragrances in order to reduce the strength so that it can be sold at a lower price. For both synthetic fragrances and essential oils you want to avoid diluents such as dipropylene glycol (DPG) because they can prevent the candle from burning properly.

The variety of compounds available mean that there is almost an unlimited amount of combinations or scents that can be created. This is how “sugar cookie” or “bubblegum” scents can be available since they do not naturally occur in nature.

Synthetic fragrances are often preferred because they are less expensive, more widely available, can be more easily combined with additives or other compounds to improve its ability to work with different types of wax, and can provide a more concentrated and consistent odour.

However, while the National Candle Association claims that properly formulated scented candles will primarily produce water vapour and carbon dioxide when burned, there is always the potential for any compound to be broken down during the pyrolysis process (the decomposition of material in the presence of high temperatures) and released into the air. A type of compound that may be released into the air include volatile organic compounds.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are carbon-containing chemicals that have high vapour pressure, meaning they will readily evaporate and become vapours or gases at room temperature. Some VOCs occur naturally, while others may be synthetically produced. For instance, human’s release VOCs through their skin and when they exhale. Plants also produce a broad range of VOCs that play an important role in protecting them from stress and pathogens, attracting insects for pollination and seed dispersal, and as a form of communication or signalling to other plants, as well as animals.

VOCs may also be emitted by solvents, paints, air fresheners, pesticides, fire retardants, burning fuel, stored fuel and automotive products, hobby supplies, glue, correction fluids, and many building materials and household cleaning and disinfectant products. Most scents and odours, both natural and synthetic, are comprised of VOCs. Not all VOCS are harmful to health, but many are, including benzene, toluene, and aldehydes (including formaldehyde).

Health effects experienced depend on the type, concentration, and length of exposure to the VOC, but they can include irritation of the eyes, nose; and throat; headaches; loss of coordination; nausea; fatigue; dizziness; visual disorders; memory impairment; and damage to the liver, kidney, and central nervous system. A number of VOCs are considered to be proven or probable human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances) and have been shown to cause cancer in animals.

VOCs are a major contributor to indoor air pollution, and it is recommended to limit exposure.

Fragrance formulas are regarded as “proprietary” in North America, which means that fragrance manufacturers do not have to disclose the ingredients. They simply have to state “fragrance” on the label.

The fragrance, whether an essential oil or synthetic fragrance, must be compatible with your chosen wax and must be added using the right concentrations and temperatures, or they may cause a lumpy surface, poor adhesion, small diameter burn pools, poor scent throw, and poor burning properties, such as mushrooming or sooting.

Both essential oils and synthetic fragrances can be potential allergens that can aggravate asthma symptoms or cause other reactions in sensitive individuals, and should be selected and used with care.

After the wax and fragrance are incorporated, they should allowed time to “cure,” or given time to bind together.

In the next blog post, we will look into colourants.

In the previous blog posts, we looked into plant waxes palm, carnauba, bayberry and soy. Now we will look into a relatively new plant wax known as coconut wax.

Coconut Oil and Coconut Wax

Coconut wax is not as popular or as well known as other types of waxes due to being harder to find and more expensive. It has been gaining interest as an alternative to paraffin candles because it is considered cleaner burning, and as an alternative to soy because it is considered more sustainable and eco-friendly to harvest.

Non-organic coconuts may be grown using large quantities of fertilizer, pesticides, and herbicides, and may then be treated with bleaching agents, fungicides, and preservatives for transport. Pesticide residue, however, has not been detected in coconut water or coconut oil in several studies. It is still recommended to purchase organic since less harsh chemicals are released into the air and absorbed by the coconut tree, but it is interesting to note that the tough shell of the coconut can act as a natural barrier even in the case of non organic farming.

As is the case with the source of most waxes, the processing method plays a major role in the chemicals that are present in the final product. Coconut wax is made from the meat (white flesh) of a mature coconut. A coconut takes 12 months to fully mature from a new flower. These coconuts are the seeds, or fruit, of the coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, part of the palm family, Arecaceae.

The exact origin of the coconut palm is not known and is still a subject for debate. It is currently cultivated worldwide across tropical and subtropic areas. This “tree,” as it called, is not like a tree at all since it contains no bark and usually no branches, knots, or growth rings inside. The trunk is the “stem” of the plant, and is covered with fibres or possibly spines. The particular characteristics of the trunk does depend on the variety and growing conditions.

The coconut consists of three parts: the exocarp or outer layer which is usually smooth and greenish or brownish in colour, depending on ripeness; the mesocarp, the middle layer or fibrous husk; and the endocarp, the hard and woody shell that surrounds the seed. The white edible flesh that forms on the inner surface of the shell and the water contained within provide nourishment for the “baby” plant if the coconut is left to germinate and sprout. The coconuts available at supermarkets have usually had the exocarp and/or mesocarp removed, hence the difference in appearance.

The coconuts are harvested, usually by cutting them down or collecting those that have already dropped. Waiting for the coconut to drop can be dangerous since they are very hard and may fall on the harvester’s head.

The coconut oil comes from the flesh of the coconut, also known as the kernel. There are two main, broad categories of coconut oil, refined and unrefined (also known as virgin or extra virgin), that go through different methods of processing.

Refined coconut oil is usually made from copra, or dried coconut flesh, the major commercial product of coconut. The coconut is split and the flesh removed and then dried using smoke, fire, sunlight, or kilns or a combinations of the methods over a few days.

This drying process has received controversy due to its “unsanitary” nature and risk of contamination. The removed coconut meat is usually placed on a rack over a fire, or left to sun dry. This means the flesh is exposed to bacteria from airborne particles and nearby wildlife such as insects and birds. The process also creates an unhealthy environment for the workers, who are also exposed the bacteria. The amount of heat, moisture, or other environmental factors all affect the stability and quality of the copra.

The inedible copra is then packed and transported to a processing facility, where it is then processed in order to extract the coconut oil and remove contamination. The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents (usually hexane) in order to separate the oil from the meal. The extraction process involves extremely high heat. The residual meal is of low quality and is usually used as animal feed.

In its current state, the coconut, or copra, oil is brown in colour and is not suitable for consumption. It must go through further refining, bleaching, and deodorization. This is known as RBD (Refinement, Bleaching, and Deodorization). The refining process may involve using hydrochloric acids, solvents, and steam. The bleaching process may involve filtering through bleaching clays and the deodorization process uses high heat to remove the odour and flavour. Sodium hydroxide is often added to remove free fatty acids and prolong shelf life.

Unrefined coconut oil is made from fresh coconut meat instead of copra. It is the least refined oil (all coconut oils requires some level of processing in order to extract the oil, which is not readily available). There is no worldwide certification or regulatory body to determine or regulate the term “virgin.” This means that anyone can use the term, and the only way to know for certain is to research or contact the company.

The extraction process for making unrefined coconut oil involves two main processes: quick drying or wet milling. In the quick drying process, the coconut meat is subjected to minimal heat before the oil is mechanically pressed out. In the wet milling process, coconut milk is expressed by combining grated coconut milk and water and then pressing. The oil is then separated from the water by boiling, fermentation, refrigeration, enzymes, or mechanical centrifuge.

Unrefined oil extraction is usually done at lower temperatures with minimal to no refining or bleaching in order to preserve the nutrients and to retain the coconut flavour and scent, which can range from mild to intense depending on the extraction method used. The oil is usually exposed to maximum temperatures of 104° F, but may reach temperatures up to 200° F depending on the company and the extraction method used. The higher the temperature, the more “roasted” the coconut flavour and odour will be.

There is no such thing as “no heat” extraction methods since heat is generated through friction. This is especially true when machines are used. The purpose of unrefined coconut oil is to expose the coconut and its components to minimal or lowest heat possible in order to retain its nutrients and enzyme activity.

The less the coconut oil is refined, there is a greater chance that the final product may contain dust particles or other substances. Conversely, the fact that unrefined coconut uses a shorter drying time means that there is less exposure to bacteria and pathogens from the environment.

Common methods of extracting the oil that may be used in refined and unrefined oils include centrifugal, cold-pressed, expeller pressed, and fermentation.

In the centrifugal process, the coconut milk is extracted and then put into a high speed centrifuge machine that spins rapidly. This causes the oil to move toward the centre, where it can be collected. The temperature of the coconut milk, time of the rotations and rotation speed all make a difference in the efficiency and the quality of the oil.

Cold pressed and expeller pressed are similar methods that involve squeezing the oil out of the coconuts using pressure and weight from a mechanical press. Expeller pressed can be either heat or cold pressed. Heat may be generated from the friction of the nuts or seeds in in the expeller machine. Unlike the name may suggest, the cold pressed method does still generate heat, but the temperature is regulated to keep it at a lower level to prevent the loss of nutrients.

The fermentation process uses coconut milk. The coconut milk is allowed to sit and ferment, usually for 24 to 36 hours. This causes the heavier water to sink while the oil remains on top. The oil is then skimmed off and put into a pan, where it is then heated to remove moisture and filtered. The temperature used in the heating process can vary, from minimal heat to almost boiling.

The oils obtained from these other methods may be filtered or further refined in chemical distillation, which uses harsh chemical solvents.

The variability in methods and use of chemicals in the extraction of coconut oil makes it difficult to know the quality or nutritional value unless the company is looked into or contacted.

Coconut wax is generally made from refined oil. The amount of “scent” that remains depends on the brand of the wax. To make the oil into a wax, it goes through the process of hydrogenation, similar to the process of making soy wax, in order to increase the melting point and make it more solid. However, the creamy white wax is still incredibly soft, and is blended with other waxes to make it solid at room temperature and strong enough to use for a candle.

Whether coconut wax is more sustainable or eco friendly than other waxes depends on the source of the coconut and coconut oil and the harvesting and extracting processes used. It is, however, a renewable resource and is biodegradable like other plant waxes.

Unlike soy wax, coconut wax is said to have a good scent throw and works well with fragrance and essential oils. It may also burn cooler and longer than other waxes.

These are only some of the many, many waxes available. Others include candelilla wax, made from the surface of the Euphorbia cerifera shrub; the Myrica fruit wax, obtained from the Myrica Pubescens tree; gel “wax,” a transparent, rubbery compound generally made of 95% mineral oil and 5% polymer resin; and many more plant-based, petroleum-based, mineral-based, polymer-based, or mixed waxes that provide various burning and scent properties.

Many of these waxes are not only used in candles, but in cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. Knowing how these waxes are made is not only important for making or choosing candles, but for understanding some of the material that are in other products that we use.

Most waxes have already gone through refinement and filtration, but some candle makers or manufacturers may filter the wax again before making into the candle.

Now that we have examined the properties of some of the waxes available, we will look into fragrances and dyes, and the moulding and extrusion process of the candle, in the following parts of the series.

In the previous blog post, we looked into the plant waxes palm, carnauba, and bayberry, and in this blog post we will look into soy wax, a wax that has recently surged in popularity.

Soy Wax

Soy wax burns at a lower temperature and is less expensive than beeswax, and is claimed to be cleaner, slower and longer burning than paraffin wax with less soot; as well as sustainable; renewable; carbon neutral (having zero carbon footprint or no net greenhouse gas emissions); and biodegradable.

To understand whether these claims are true, it is helpful to look into how soy wax is made. The exact composition and production method depends on the manufacturer, but the common process begins with harvesting the soybeans, which usually comes from genetically modified crops. Genetically modified soybeans have been altered (specific genes added to the genetic composition) to resist herbicides. The crops can then treated with these herbicides to get rid of surrounding weeds without destroying the soybeans themselves.

The altered genetic composition could potentially create a new allergen or allergic reactions in people who are sensitive, and can result in the development of herbicide-resistant weeds. Furthermore, GMO means that crops are commercially farmed with pesticides and herbicides. These chemical substances can harm neighbouring crops and other plant species that aren’t resistant to them.

They can also release volatile organic compounds; compounds that easily become gases or vapours and can contain elements that are harmful to human and animal health. This includes harming the health of the harvester. Rain or water can wash off pesticides and herbicides and may cause them to leach into the soil. How long the pesticide or herbicide persists in the soil before breaking down depends on their chemical content and the type of soil. They also have the potential to contaminate drinking water by making their way into groundwater or surface water systems.

While soy is a renewable resource, it is not necessarily sustainable. The increased demand for soy, particularly GMO soy, in the animal feed industry as well as for human consumption and industrial processes, has raised concern over deforestation, unhealthy levels of pesticides and herbicides, and contamination of drinking water. This mass production puts strain on our environment.

If using soybeans or soy oil, is crucial to purchase from a certified organic company that uses sustainable, environmentally friendly methods.

After harvesting, the soybeans are cleaned, cracked, and dehulled. The seed may then go through mechanical pressing to separate the oil from the solid components, or it may be rolled into flakes, where the oil is extracted using solvent extraction.

In mechanical pressing, the seed is compressed in a container with small perforations. Enough force or pressure is exerted on the seed to rupture the cells and force the oil out. This alone does not remove all the oil from the seed, and may be followed by chemical extraction.

Solvent extraction is usually the preferred method because it yields a higher percentage of the available oil. It involves emerging the flakes into a solvent, usually hexane, a chemical commonly extracted from petroleum and crude oil. Hexane is highly flammable and is considered a toxic chemical.

Short-term exposure to hexane can affect the central nervous system and can cause headaches, dizziness, confusion, clumsiness, drowsiness, and nausea. Long-term exposure can result in more severe damage to the nervous system, and can cause numbness in the extremities, muscular weakness, blurred vision, and even damage in the nerves controlling the muscles in the arms and legs, and paralysis.

The resulting flakes are extracted and used for livestock meal or in the production of food products. The hexane is removed from from the oil through evaporators, where it is then recovered to be used again in the extraction process. Hexane in food is not monitored, and it is unclear whether a trace amount remains in the oil, and, if so, how much. The remaining solids are often used for animal feed.

The oil is then chilled and the wax settles (http://www.alohabay.com/people/What-Chemicals-Are-in-Your-Soy-Candles.html). The oil and wax may go through further refinement that may include degumming, alkali refining, bleaching (with activated earth, activated carbon or chlorine bleach) and deodorization (through vacuum distillation) to remove phosphatides, free fatty acids, insoluble matter and gums, odour, colour pigments and other “impurities.”

To make the oil more solid, it then goes through the process of hydrogenation. Hydrogenation involves introducing hydrogen atoms to the oil, usually in the presence of a high heat and a catalyst such as nickel to help break the bonds between the atoms. The hydrogen reacts with the wax to convert some of the fatty acids from unsaturated to saturated. This process changes the physical properties, such as the melting point, so that it is solid at room temperature.

While the hydrogenation helps to solidify the soybean oil into a waxy substance, it is still a “soft” wax with a low melting point that is more suited to container candles and tea lights than taper or pillar candles. This also means that soy wax can be more difficult to ship, since it can melt in high temperatures.

In addition, this raw wax doesn’t hold dyes or fragrances well. Emulsifiers, other hydrogenated vegetable oils, stearic acid, polymers,and other chemically derived additives may be incorporated into the wax to make it harder; prevent or reduce frosting, bloom, and lumpiness; and act as binding agents to help hold larger amounts of fragrance oil or dyes.

When making soy wax, larger amounts of dyes may be needed to achieve vivid or deep colours. Many soy wax manufacturers also tend to prefer using fragrance oils (synthetic fragrances) because they can be designed to be more readily miscible (the ability of two or more substances to be mixed or dissolved into one another without separating) with the type wax. It is also common for soy wax to be mixed with other waxes, such as paraffin wax, microcrystalline wax (another type of petroleum derived wax), or other plant waxes, to achieve a variety of melting points and make it more solid for votive or pillar candles.

Preservatives are also often added to soy wax, since it can go rancid without them. Some individuals have reported detecting a faint rancid smell when blowing out their soy candle.

Soy wax is not inherently better than other waxes simply because it comes from a “natural” source. No soy candles can be said to be “organic” due to the chemicals used in the extraction, refining, and hydrogenation process, but, if you choose to use soy wax, it is still crucial to find one that is manufactured from organic soybeans. The label or manufacturer stating that it is “non GMO soy wax” is not enough; it needs to say that it is from non GMO soybeans.

When selecting soy wax, you want to look for 100% soy with 100% pure essential oils. The candle industry is not regulated, so the term “pure” can still be used to describe a soy candle that is comprised of only 51% soy, and the term fragrance (whether they call it natural or not) means it was synthetically produced. Even 100% soy can still contain a small amount of paraffin, so you want to contact the company about the wax composition and manufacturing process. If they are not willing to divulge their process or materials, then I would avoid purchasing from them and try another.

Proponents of paraffin wax have argued that the production of soy wax may be worse for the environment than other waxes, and that paraffin candles are “recycling” the waste that is produced as a byproduct of the gasoline used for some large farming machinery that is often used in the agricultural industry, such as in the case of soy production.

Most oils can be made into a type of wax, but that doesn’t mean that it should be used for candles or other products that we use on a daily basis. The more synthetic or hazardous chemicals present in the wax product means that there is the potential of them breaking down during the combustion process, when the candle is lit, and being released into the air.

Furthermore, the production of most types of waxes, whether natural or synthetic, can be bad for the environment. It is always important to look into the source of the product you are using, and make sure that you are purchasing from a sustainable company. Most plant-based waxes are also renewable, while paraffin and other petroleum based waxes are not.

Many sources also claim that soy wax is water soluble. This is not true. Wax, by definition, is not water-soluble. Soy wax is made from hydrogenated soybean oil. Oils are not water soluble, hence why virtually any oil can be made into a wax or waxy substance. However, soy wax is easier to clean with soap and water than other waxes. It also has a different character and structure than beeswax, paraffin, and other waxes.

The molecular structure of the soy wax contains various types of chemical bonds that make it more prone to “trapping” fragrances instead of allow them to be readily evaporated. This results in a poor “scent throw.” Scent throw refers to the intensity of the fragrance that is released from the candle when storing (known as “cold” scent throw) or when lit (known as “hot” scent throw). Poor scent throw means the candle has a weak or faint scent.

A well made soy candle does generally burn longer than a paraffin wax candle due to having a lower melting point, or cooler burning temperature. The flame produced is generally smaller. The burning time varies drastically depending on the composition of the wax and the addition of fragrances or dyes, which require a hotter wick.

Another common misconception is that soy wax candles do not soot. All candles produce soot due to the incomplete combustion process when burning. However, properly made soy wax candles produce mainly what is known as white, or clear soot. This soot does not stain like the dark soot produced from paraffin candles and may not be easily seen. The dark soot from paraffin candles has been called “petrol-carbon” soot due to the petroleum and other byproducts that it contains.

Like any soot, the clear soot from wax candles isn’t “healthy,” but it may contain less chemicals than the soot from paraffin candles and does not cause soot damage to walls, ceilings, and furniture. This only applies to soy waxes that have properly sized wicks and do not contain fragrances, dyes, or other chemicals or additives. There is also a risk that any chemicals used during the production process of the wax may be broken down, altered, or released.

The amount of chemicals in a sustainable and organically sourced (from organic soybeans), non-scented or essential oil scented soy wax candle would be less than those in conventional paraffin and other petroleum based waxes.

In the next blog post, we will look into a fairly new wax known as coconut wax.

In the previous blog post, we looked into beeswax, and now we will go into plant waxes.

Palm Wax

Palm wax is a type of plant-based stearin wax made from palm and palm kernel oil. The harvested palm fruit is mechanically pressed and refined in palm mills. The oil is extracted and steam distilled. Then, it is either hydrogenated, or chilled and then spun to isolate the waxes/oils with the highest melting point.

The process of separating the fat from the liquid is called fractionation. The oil is separated into both liquid (olein) and vegetable fat (palm wax). It then goes through further purification to achieve the correct texture.

Because palm oil is steamed distilled, it does not require harsh solvents and other harmful chemicals such as hexane, which is used in soybean refining. The exact refining process and chemicals used depends on the manufacturer.

The resulting wax is relatively smooth and hard, and bright-burning. It can also produce a distinct crystalline or feathering pattern or effect on the finished candle.

This type of wax has gained interest due to the increased “safety” of the refining process and the fact it is considered a renewable resource, but has led to controversy due to the effects of palm oil harvesting on the environment and and wildlife. Palm oil harvest contributes to mass deforestation and destruction of the environment and animal habitats, mainly in Malaysia and Indonesia. It is difficult to find a source of palm oil products that is truly sustainable.

Thermally oxidized (refined) palm oil (the oil is repeatedly subjected to high heat) is high in saturated fats, low in polyunsaturated fats, and can have adverse health effects on the body when consumed. Due to the effect of palm oil production on the environment and the health risks associated with consuming refined palm oil, some consumers may prefer to choose another type of wax rather than promote the palm oil industry.

If you choose to use palm wax, look for food grade palm oil that comes from plantations that are certified for using only sustainable, organic agricultural practices.

Carnauba

Carnauba wax, also known as Brazil wax, is a type of palm wax made from the leaves of the Brazilian palm tree, Copernica Cerifera. The plant naturally secretes the wax to maintain hydration and protect the leaves from damage. Only the Carnauba palms grown in the northeastern region of Brazil have this wax.

The leaves are collected and dried, and then beaten or scraped to loosen the powdery wax. The resulting wax flakes are melted, filtered, bleached, and moulded into blocks and cooled. There are several grades of carnauba wax depending on its “purity level,” or the level of refining and bleaching. A version of the wax is also available where water is used as the extraction agent.

In its pure state, it is a solid that has a yellow to yellow-brown colour. The colour and quality may vary depending on the age of the leaves and the handling in the production process. The wax is not readily soluble and usually needs additional ingredients such as solvents or oils to make it into a liquid form for use in making products.

It is extremely hard (one of the hardest naturally occurring waxes), durable, has a higher melting point than other waxes, and can produce a glossy finish. It is used in numerous applications such as in candles, candies, polishes, varnishes, printing inks, and cosmetic, dental and pharmaceutical products to provide a polish or coating or act as a hardening or gelling agent. It may also be combined with other waxes to improve their strength. In many applications it has been replaced by cheaper synthetics, but it is still frequently used.

Carnauba wax is considered biodegradable and sustainable since, if harvested properly, the leaves regrow. However, if purchasing carnauba wax, it is still important to obtain it from a source that is committed to sustainable, organic practices and the conservation of the carnauba palm. The palm tree needs time to reach full productivity, and the leaves need time to grow back. The wax may also be more expensive.

Bayberry Wax

Bayberry wax, also sometimes referred to as myrtle wax, is a green (or olive-coloured) vegetable wax derived from the fruit of the American bayberry bush or English bog myrtle. The process of obtaining the wax has not changed much since its discovery by America’s Colonial women. The berries are boiled, causing their waxy coating to be released. The wax is then skimmed from the surface of the water and left to harden.

This process can be tedious and it can take anywhere from 4 to 15 pounds of berries to produce one pound of wax. Bayberry wax also has its own distinct, earthy aroma that is woodsy, warm and spicy. The aroma makes it a popular wax for use in taper and pillar candles and for use at Christmastime. It can also be mixed with other waxes to provide a natural scent to other waxes, or to strengthen the bayberry wax. The unique scent does not appeal to everyone, however, and cannot be overridden, hidden, or successfully blended with other fragrances.

It is considered a good vegan substitute to beeswax, though it is more expensive and more brittle. Candles made from pure bayberry wax may break easier.

In the next blog post, we will look into soy wax.

In the previous blog post of this series, we looked into paraffin wax, tallow, and stearin wax. In this blog post, we will look into another popular animal wax: beeswax.

Beeswax

As the name implies, beeswax is made from wax produced by bees. It is relatively soft and stickier than other waxes. There are two main types of beeswax candles: solid beeswax and honeycomb wax. Solid beeswax candles can be made by melting the capping wax or an empty comb in boiling water and then pouring into a mould, or by continuously dipping a wick into the melted wax. The dipping method is used to create taper candles.

Cappings or capping wax is a thin layer of beeswax that seals or “caps” the honey in each comb. This is considered the best type of beeswax for candle making. The process of removing the caps is known as uncapping. There are various methods for uncapping, but it usually involves heating the honey and then using a thin, hot knife to cut off the caps on both sides of the cells (individual combs) so that they fall into a basket.

After the cappings are removed and the honey extracted, the empty combs may be left (returned to the bees) so that they don’t have to make more, or they can be broken down and melted. Combs contain more pollen, propolis (bee resin; a resinous compound produced by bees), and bee bits and usually requires more filtration. Solid beeswax is known for having a relatively high melting point, which translates into a longer burn time.

For honeycomb beeswax candles, a sheet of honeycomb texture wax is rolled. This method creates a looser structure with more air, and results in a faster burning candle.

The exact composition, colour, and scent depends on the geographic location and diet (nearby crop) of the bees. Pesticides, herbicides, or other chemicals used on the crop that the bees feed on and pollinate play a major role in the health of the bees and the quality of the honey and wax. Raw beeswax generally has a golden colour, though white wax can also be obtained through bleaching. The bleaching process may use toxic compounds. For this reason, many candle makers or manufacturers choose not to do it.

In candles, the strong honey scent may not blend well with other fragrances and may mask other scents. Bleached or chemically altered beeswax may not contain as strong of a smell, or may have a medicinal smell. Even without the strong scent, the wax may still not blend well with other fragrance oils and may end up with a poor scent throw. Scent throw refers to the strength and radius of the fragrances emitted from the candle.

Worker bees are sterile female bees who support the hive by collecting food, feeding larvae, and maintaining the structure of the honeycombs. Foraging worker bees go out and collect nectar and pollen. This nectar is ingested, where it mixes with special enzymes in the bees’ saliva, and then stored in a nectar “sac” (also called a pollen pouch or honey stomach) that is separate from their food stomach.

Once the sac or stomach is full (a load that is close to the bee’s own weight), she returns to the hive, where the nectar may be directly deposited into the cells of the comb or transferred tongue-to-tongue to one or more of the younger hive worker bees. Most of the nectar will thicken and become honey through a process of evaporation (dehydration), but some will be turned into beeswax. How often the nectar is transferred depends on the moisture content. It is usually passed on until the moisture content is reduced by around 70% to 80%.

Young hive worker bees have developed special wax producing glands on their abdomens. After consuming the honey or nectar, the wax producing glands convert the sugar into wax. The wax is extruded as small flakes through tiny pores. The bees then chew the flakes with more honey to make them soft and malleable for shaping into honeycombs. These honeycombs consist of hexagon (six-sided) shaped cylinders that fit side by side. This is the most efficient shape for the storage of honey, using the least amount of wax to contained the highest volume of honey.

The temperature of the hive is also maintained so that the beeswax doesn’t get too hot and melt, or too low or cold, where it becomes brittle.

These combs serve as storage for honey and nectar and a place to raise their brood. The stored honey provides food for the next generation of bees and acts as winter food stores, to provide nourishment during the cold months when nectar cannot be collected.

Once a cell is full of honey or nectar, the bees add a layer of wax over the cell to seal it. This creates an airtight container that allows the honey to keep for a long time.

A bee needs to consume approximately 6 to 8 pounds of nectar or honey to produce a pound of wax. A queen honey bee may live for three to four years, though domesticated honey queen bees may have a shorter lifespan to due some beekeepers “re-queening” the hive frequently, while a worker bee has a lifespan of only five to seven weeks during the colony’s active season.

The worker bees continuously work to collect nectar, produce honey, clean cells, guard the hive, build and repair combs, and feed and care for the larvae.

It is due to the hardworking nature of bees that many people choose not to use beeswax. They feel that it is a form of animal exploitation, and that using the honey and beeswax is the same as stealing. It is true that, if honey is removed, the bees will work harder to replenish it. It is also true that there are many beekeeping practices that are harmful to the bees.

These bee farmers (many of which are large-scale commercial companies who work to produce enough honey and wax to meet high demands for its use in a variety of food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical applications) may: remove all the honey and replace it with a sugar solution that is less nutritious; move the hives to track seasonal crops which can stress the bees, put them in danger of overheating or suffocation, and expose them to new diseases and pesticides; clip the queen bee’s wings to prevent her from flying and leaving the prime swarm; and may contaminate the honey, expose the bees to harmful chemicals, or burn them through the incorrect use of bee smokers.

While these types of harmful practices do exist, there are also ethical practices that help maintain the health of the bee colony while still harvesting the honey and wax. These beekeepers care about the health and well-being of the bees and will take only the excess honey that the colony can afford to lose, and then leave them the rest. They will also use the capping wax and liquid honey, while leaving the comb intact so that the bees can reuse it instead of rebuilding it.

Allowing the bees to pollinate more crops instead of only one also increases the strength of their immune system.

Smoking is a technique used to calm the bees. This has two effects. The smoke is sensed by the bees, who interpret is as being an indication of a forest fire. The colony prepares to move the hive by storing as much honey as they can. They gorge on the honey and then become lethargic and less likely to sting.

The smoke can also mask the bee pheromones. Pheromones are substances released by an animal that produce a change in sexual or social behaviour of other members of the same species. When a threat is sensed, the bee releases an alarm pheromone to warn the other bees. The smoke interferes with this communication and can confuse the bees, allowing the beekeeper to work on the hive without agitating them.

So long as the right fuel is used (made with natural material such as pine cones, wood chips, and cartons without the use of harmful chemicals), the smoker isn’t too hot, there isn’t too much smoke, and it is used in moderation, then it hasn’t been shown to cause short-term or long-term harm to the bees.

The harvesting of honey and wax has been blamed for contributing to the loss of bees, but it is habitat destruction and the increase in genetic modification, parasites, pesticides, herbicides, and other pollutants and harsh chemicals that play a major role in the survival of the bee.

In addition, bees are important pollinators, but they are not the only ones. There are many other important pollinating insect species such as butterflies, moths, flies, and beetles. Having bees shipped around the world (known as relocation) to pollinate commercial crops for the agriculture industry can do more harm than good. It can stress the bees, and non-native species can become invaders that compete (and sometimes outcompete) with native species and can bring new diseases.

Nevertheless, bees play a vital role in pollination, and beekeeping may help play a role in increasing bee populations.

Many people see the relationship between bees and beekeeper as a symbiotic one that benefits both the human and the bees. The beekeeper can provide better shelter or protection during winter, and in return takes surplus honey.

Beeswax contains natural sugar, water, minerals, vitamins, pollen, protein, and traces of bee enzyme. The fact that honey and beeswax are the products of an animal (the bee) and contain traces of bee enzyme, they are generally not considered vegan. Although they are sometimes referred to as “plant-based animal products” since they primarily consists of plant material, they are ultimately still a product of the bee. For this reason, many vegans may choose not to use either honey or beeswax.

Some claim that beeswax candles emit negative ions that clear the air of pollen, bacteria, dust, mould spores, and other airborne particles by binding to positively charged ions and then making them fall to the ground due to the increased weight. However, all candles have been shown to emit negative ions. There is no conclusive evidence or study to show how much negative ions are released.

The heat of a burning candle will incinerate some of the dust and other harmful airborne particles, but, as a result of the combustion process, will also release carbon dioxide, water vapour, a small amount of carbon monoxide, smoke and any other chemical or volatile organic compounds from added fragrances or colours. While this doesn’t mean that a candle should never be burned, it makes it unlikely that any candle is able to help purify the air.

A properly made, 100% pure, naturally scented beeswax candle is one of the cleanest and longest burning. It is more expensive, but longer lasting than other candles. Over time, beeswax candles may develop a whitish powder that is known as “bloom.” This bloom occurs in pure cappings beeswax and is the result of natural components of the wax migrating to the surface, where they eventually crystallize. This effect is more likely to occur when the wax has been subjected to many temperature changes, and can be removed by buffing the candle with a soft cloth or by using a blow dryer on low setting.

Beeswax candles have been considered hypoallergenic and are virtually dripless. Organic beeswax cannot truly exist since the bees are free to travel wherever they want to collect the nectar and there is no way to completely monitor them. Having the hive located near organically grown crops, though, does help protect the bees and decreases their exposure to harmful chemicals.

In the next blog post in this series, we will look into plant based waxes.

Wax Base Preparation

The fuel of the candle is another vital component that directly affects the type of wick needed and the combustion process. Over the years, a variety of substances have been used as the fuel, or wax base, of the candle, and this amount continues to grow.

This leaves a large list to choose from for the candle making and manufacturing process. The cost and ease of production, appearance, scent properties, burning properties, and sustainability are all factors to consider when selecting the wax, or when choosing your candle.

Common waxes for candles include paraffin, stearin, beeswax, and plant waxes palm, carnauba, bayberry and soy. Tallow and gels are also sometimes used.

Paraffin Wax

Paraffin, a byproduct of oil refining, is one of the world’s most commonly used waxes. It is a relatively hard wax that is valued for its colourless or white colour, semi-translucency, and lack of odour. It is mostly composed of a mixture of solid straight-chained, saturated hydrocarbons and comes in a variety of melting points, which means that it can be used for a number of different candle applications.

It is obtained from petroleum in a process known as “dewaxing.” The crude oil is extracted from the barrel and refined, and leaves behind a dark layer of a thick substance known as petroleum wax. This wax is not needed for production of oil and gas, so it goes through further refinement to meet different needs.

The refinement or purification process involves chemical treatments such as bleaching and the separation of the wax into different grades by distillation and/or recrystallization. The degree of refinement and oil content can create different types or grades of paraffin wax, ranging from the crudest versions such as slack wax to the highest grade known as fully refined wax. The exact characteristics, such as melting point and colour, depend on the type of paraffin wax.

Two broad categories of paraffin wax are partially or semi refined wax and fully refined wax. Both semi refined and fully refined wax are used in the candle making process, with oil content ranging between 0.5% and 1.5%. Other forms of paraffin include granulated paraffin wax, liquid paraffin (also known as white oil or mineral oil) and white petroleum jelly.

The bleaching process involves using industrial strength bleach, which has a strength of 100%. This turns the dark wax into white. This bleach also creates dioxins. Dioxins are a diverse group of chlorinated chemicals or compounds that are highly persistent in the environment. They are toxic and have been identified as a likely carcinogen that can interfere with natural processes in the body.

The paraffin wax may also be textured with chemicals such as acrolein and mixed with substances such as animal based stearic acid to harden. Acrolein is an unsaturated aldehyde that is used for the creation of other chemicals, and is also a precursor to some commercial fragrances. Not enough information exists on the full effects of acrolein on the human body, but exposure to it has been shown to result in upper respiratory tract irritation and congestion and can induce DNA damage.

The petroleum by-products and additives of paraffin wax inhibit biodegradability. Crude oil, in which paraffin wax is derived from, is also classified as a nonrenewable resource because it a fossil fuel that does not form or replenish in a short amount of time.

Paraffin wax is more commonly known for its use in candle making, but it also plays a role in making wax paper, drywall, electrical insulators, baby oil, and cosmetics.

In cosmetics, it is used in lipstick, gloss, balm, eyeliner, moisturizer, and mascara to seal in moisture and prevent moisture loss. It is also used in and on food to slow moisture loss and spoilage and make fruits and candy appear shiny and more appealing; in spa treatments and wax for hair removal; and has been used in medical applications such pharmaceuticals and ointments.

Fully refined paraffin wax is certified as “food grade” by the FDA (the Food and Drug Administration), and is approved for use in and on food, cosmetics, and medical applications. However, this doesn’t mean that paraffin wax is safe or healthy.

There is controversy regarding the effects of paraffin wax on our health. The National Candle Association claims that no type of wax has been proven to cause health problems, yet, in 2005, the American Lung Association issued a warning about about the dangers of paraffin. The EPA (the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) also revealed that paraffin wax candles release small amounts of harmful chemicals when burned, including acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, acrolein, dioxins, furans, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Other toxins, also known carcinogens, that are released are toluene and benzene; the same toxins found in diesel fuel flames.

Anything present in a candle wax mixture has the potential of being broken down and released in the air during the heating and combustion process. The heat of the flame breaks down the structure of the wax, which separates into many different chemicals. This works for all candles. Some of the chemicals that are released are more toxic than others, and change depending on the composition of the wax and the addition of fragrances, dyes, and additives.

In cosmetics, paraffin is considered a possible carcinogen, and has been linked to skin irritation and some types of kidney and renal system cancers. In spa treatments and hair removal, is has been shown to cause skin irritation and allergic reactions in some individuals, and is not recommended for people with hypertension, diabetes or varicose veins because it can hinder circulation and cause abnormal numbing sensations.

Tallow

Tallow is a hard fatty substance made from rendered animal fat and consisting of a mixture of glycerides, including stearic, palmitic, and oleic acids. It is a white and nearly tasteless fat that was once a common inexpensive fuel choice for candles. When other materials, such as paraffin and spermaceti, became more widely available and provided a cleaner, less smoky burn and more pleasant smell, tallow fell out of common use in candle making.

Some tallow candles, made mainly from rendered sheep or beef fat, are still made today, but they can go rancid and still pose the problem of emitting an acrid odour. This can cause irritation in some individuals.

Stearin Wax

Stearin wax is comprised primarily of stearic and palmitic acids. These acids are derived from long-chained saturated fatty acids found in animal fats and vegetable oils. Animal sources of stearin are typically derived from tallow, while plant sources are typically palm stearin derived from coconuts and palm nuts.

Stearin wax comes in a variety of solid or granular forms, and is often mixed with other waxes, particularly paraffin, to act as a hardener, reduce dripping, increase the burning time of the candle, and make it easier for the wax to be removed from the mould, since stearin increases shrinkage in wax candles. Stearin should not be used in latex rubber moulds, since it can rot or eat through them, and stearin candles can only be produced using casting methods.

The process of separating the stearic acid from the animal fat or vegetable oil can involve recrystallization from organic solvents, press, or filtration methods. These may employ the use of chemicals, which, depending on what is used, can be toxic.

In the next blog post in this series, we will look into the popular wax beeswax.

One of the oldest methods for making candles was the dipping method. The dipping method involves repeatedly dipping the wick into heated wax (liquid wax) or waxy substance until the waxy substance adheres and reaches the desired thickness.

The wick would have been made from dried rushes, while the waxy substance would have consisted of molten fat. Different types of material for wicks and wax are now available, and the method has been largely adapted to automated and electronically operated machinery.

Another method for creating candles is the pouring method. This can involve pouring melted wax over a suspended wick that is being simultaneously twirled (generally by hand), or pouring melted wax into a pre-heated, tube-shaped mould with the wick passing through. The wax is left to cool before removing. The wick is prepared prior to pouring and is pulled through a hole in the tip of the mould.

Modern technology allows for mass production as well as increased speed, accuracy, and quality, but some candle makers may still use traditional methods. They may manually dip, roll, and pour/mould the candles.

Candle making or manufacturing generally involves three main steps: making and preparing the wick, preparing the wax base, and then moulding or extrusion (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Candle.html).

Wick Preparation

The wick plays a crucial role in delivering the fuel to the flame. It affects the burn time and efficiency of a lit candle. For this reason, the wick has been called the “soul” of the candle and is considered one of the most important components. In the manufacturing process, the preparation of the wick is usually the first step.

The number of threads, thickness, and material are all chosen based upon the shape, size, type of wax, and the production or chosen candle making method.

Candles made by stretching need a wick that can candle the pressure. Thicker candles may need larger wicks, while smaller candles may need thinner wicks. Wicks that are too thick or that draw too much fuel may cause the flame to flare and produce soot, while too little can cause the flame to sputter out.

The wick also affects and is reliant on the “fuel source” or wax. Some fuel sources, such as refined paraffin wax, soak more easily and thus easily travel up the wick and produce wax vapour. Thicker waxes, such as stearin and beeswax, may require a thicker wick for sufficient absorption. The melting point of the wax also changes the type of wick needed, since some waxes may require more heat.

The amount of wax consumed in grams per hour by the wick is known as the burn rate, and the amount of time it takes for the wax of the candle to be consumed completely is known as the burn time. The higher the burn rate, the more wax will be consumed per hour, and the lower the burn rate, the less wax will be consumed.

You can get an approximate burn rate of a candle by weighing the candle before and after burning, and then determining how much wax was consumed (how many ounces or grams were lost) in the amount of time that has past. You can then use this amount to determine the overall burn time of the candle.

Fragrances, colour, and other additives also influence the type of wick needed. Similar to the effect of different fuel sources, some fragrance ingredients easily travel up the wick, while others do not. They may also have different temperatures at which their vapour will combust, also known as “flash points.” Fragrances with lower flash points may need a thinner wick to prevent the flame from becoming too large and hot, while others may need a thicker wick for it to break down and vaporize. Extra oils or ingredients often require a larger wick in order to combust.

Types of colours, such as dye chips, colour blocks, liquids, and powders, and whether they are used in the wax or applied to the exterior, can also affect the composition of the wax, how it burns, and what type and size of wick is needed. Some pigments can clog the the candle wick and cause increased smoking. If you have a candle that is excessively sooting or flickering, and you are burning it properly, then it may be a sign that the wrong type of wick was used.

The wick can be made from a variety of material, including paper, flax, hemp, cotton, metal, and wood, with cotton and paper-cotton combinations being the most common in candles manufactured within North America.

There are hundreds of types of wicks that are braided, knitted, twisted, and more, but they can be categorized into four major types: flat wicks, square wicks, cored wicks, and specialty wicks.

Flat wicks usually consist of three bundles of fibre or thread that are flat-plaited or knitted. They provide a very consistent burn and curl in the flame. Curling in the flame is when the wick bends at a 90 degree angle, toward the exterior, keeping it in the outer mantle of the flame when the candle is lit. This causes the wick to be shortened naturally in a self-trimming effect. It also prevents mushrooming at the tip.

Mushrooming, also known as carbon heading, is the result of carbon buildup. It occurs when the wax burns faster than the wick and leaves a curled, blackened bit of excess wick. This black ball or clump of wick may eventually crumble down. Some mushrooming will always occur, but excessive amounts can prevent the candle from burning correctly and may cause smoking.

Square wicks are braided or knitted, and also curl in the flame. They are more rounded and more robust than a flat wick, and can help inhibit clogging. This type is popular for beeswax candles and plant waxes such as soy.

Cored wicks are braided or knitted and use a core material to keep the wick straight while burning. They have a round cross section. A variety of core materials, including cotton, paper, zinc, or tin, can be used for different stiffness effects. The rigidity makes them a popular choice for container candles and votives. It helps keep the wick upright when the wax liquefies.

Zinc core wicks, a common type of cored wick, is made with a cotton fibre braid surrounding a zinc core. They are the most rigid, followed by paper and cotton, and do not burn as hot as other wicks. They may need to be pre-waxed or made thicker when using with vegetable waxes.

Another type of core wick that can still be found is lead wicks. Lead wicks were banned in North America, but can still be found in imported candles. When these lead-core wicks are burned, they can release lead and other heavy metals into the air. These airborne heavy metals can reach levels that are much higher than acceptable limits and can pose a serious health threat.

Specialty wicks are designed for specific candle applications, such as if the candle will be used only in a specific environment, and particular burn characteristics are needed to achieve the desired effect or result. Examples are oil lamps, tea lights, and insect-repelling candles.

Wooden wicks may also be used, but they are not as common. They provide maximum rigidity and do not need trimming. Two main types are hard wood wicks and soft wood wicks. These wicks provides little carbon buildup and minimal smoking and create soft crackling and popping noises when burning. The amount of crackling directly relates to the type and amount of fragrance oil, colouring, and wax. The wood is usually treated with a burning agent to promote a consistent burn and continuous relighting. However, they can produce a large flame and should be used in containers, and not in pillars or votives.

Common types of wicks include HTP series wicks and CD wicks. The HTP (High Temperature Paper) consists of a specially constructed braid, with a flat-braided cotton fibre design with intertwined thin paper fibres. This provides a self-trimming affect and reduced carbon build up like the flat and square wicks, but with increased rigidity like a cored wick. They provide a hotter burn, which is suitable for use with waxes that have a higher melting point.

CD wicks (Heinz Stabilo wicks) are a coreless wick similar to the HTP series. They consist of a non-directional, flat braid style with special paper filament woven around, and are primed with a natural wax coating. They are a versatile wick that offers increased rigidity and promotes a consistent burn.

Other types of wicks include the ECO series, LX wick (German coreless), and the RRD series wicks. They differ in the unique construction of the braid and the type and treatment of the fibres used.

Round wicks, like the RRD series, have a tightly braided core designed with tension threads. They consist of a few threads that are interlaced asymmetrically to create a small artificial tension in the wick to provide a centred burn pool and allow the wick to lean over the exterior of the flame. This gives a slight curl when burning which helps create the self-trimming effect and provides a hotter burn. This tightly braided flame is considered “directional” because it has capillary action that flows better in one direction.

Braided, knitted, or plaited fibres encourage a slow, consistent burn, while twisted wicks burn much faster because of the loose construction, and are often used for birthday candles. Wicks made of natural hemp fibres burn hotter than cotton.

After the raw wick is chosen and prepared, it is treated or primed with chemicals, inorganic salt solutions, or a wax formula to help increase stiffness and promote consistent burning and easy lighting. This treatment helps eliminate air bubbles and helps provide the right amount of fuel to the flame so that it won’t burn too quickly and extinguish. The wick may be coated with a coating machine or can be done by hand by soaking or dipping the wick into the solution, and then pulling tight and leaving to dry.

Some wicks may also be tabbed, such as those used in votives, jars, and gels. A wick tab, also known as a sustainer tab, is a small, flat metal disc with a stem or raised “neck” in the centre (called the wick collar) with a hole in the middle for the wick. The tab is added to the end of the wick, where it is crimped in place. It helps hold the coated wick straight during the life of the candle and extinguishes the flame before it reaches the bottom of the candle; reducing the chance of the container getting too hot and transferring the heat to the surface below. This can be done with a wick tabbing machine, or can also be done by hand.

Extra long collared wick tabs may be needed for decorative candles that contain three-dimensional accessories.

Some candle makers or manufacturers may make their own wicks by selecting the fibres or material and then braiding, plaiting, knitting, or twisting it depending on the chosen material, and then coating and tabbing it, but wicks can also be purchased raw (plain or uncoated) or primed by the spool or yard, or pre-tabbed in various sizes.

The wick plays a significant role in the proper burning of the candle, and it important that you seek out a well-made candle or pay careful attention to the wick you choose when making your own candle.

In the next blog, we will look into another vital component in the candle making process: the preparation of the wax base.

Essentially, the candle has not changed much throughout history. It consists of a mass, generally a cylinder or block, of wax or other fuel with an embedded central wick that produces light when burned. Some candles may contain multiple wicks.

The term “wax” applies to a large group of chemically different materials or substances. They are typically composed of hydrocarbons, alcohols, fatty acids, and esters and are generally solid at ambient temperature, insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents, and have a melting point between 110°F to 200°F (approximately 43°C to 93°C).

There are a multitude of formulas and substances available under the name “wax,” and this amount continues to increase as chemists experiment with new chemical compositions. Waxes can be classified into two main groups: natural waxes and synthetic waxes. Natural waxes can further be divided into animal waxes, vegetable waxes, and mineral waxes. Animal waxes include beeswax, tallow, and animal-based stearin. Plant waxes include palm, carnauba, bayberry and soy. Mineral waxes can be further divided into fossil or earth waxes, which include ceresin and montan, and petroleum wax, which includes paraffin and microcrystalline. Synthetic wax consists of man-made materials and includes polymer waxes.

A wick is a strip or thread of fibrous or porous material that draws up the fuel (the wax) to the flame by capillary action. They come in a variety of material and thicknesses, depending on the desired result and the other components of the candle such as the wax type and size, fragrances, and colouring. There are hundred of types of wicks, but common materials include paper, flax, hemp, cotton, wood, and metal-cores such as zinc and lead.

Before going into the manufacturing process or how candles are made, it can be helpful to know how a candle works, or how it burns.

When a candle is lit, the heat from the flame melts the wax in and near the wick. This liquid wax is absorbed by the wick and is pulled upward in what is known as capillary action. Wax needs to be in a gaseous state for it to ignite and burn, and this happens when the wick traps the liquid wax in the heat of the flame, causing it to get hotter and hotter until it turns into gas. This wax vapour acts as fuel to keep the wick burning. The resulting heat travels in all directions.

Heat travels down the wick to melt more wax at the top of the candle. Hot wax vapours are drawn out from the wick and draw oxygen into the base of the flame. The hydrocarbons start to break down into molecules of hydrogen and carbon and then react with oxygen in the surrounding air to produce heat, light, water vapour, and carbon dioxide.

The chemical reaction in which the wax reacts with oxygen in the air is known as combustion, and it produces carbon dioxide and water in the form of steam.

The oxygen-rich base of the candle flame is characterized by a blue colour. The blue zone of the flame is where the oxygen enters and the hydrocarbon molecules begin to vaporize and separate. Surrounding the flame is a faint outside, called the veil, that is also blue because it directly meets with the oxygen of the air. It is also known as the outer zone and is where complete combustion of the wax takes place. This veil is the hottest part of the flame and reaches 1400°C, or 2552°F.

Above the blue zone of the base, directly above the wick, the flame has a dark or orange/brown region which has relatively little oxygen. This section, also known as the dark inner zone, consists of unburnt wax vapours. Soot (small, hardened carbon particles) begins to form as carbon continues to break down. The soot is not harmful if it burns up before leaving the flame. It is these carbon particles that create the dark colour. This zone emits the least heat.

The next zone is the yellow zone, also known as the luminous zone. It consists of partial combustion (insufficient oxygen is available to completely burn all of the wax vapour) and is moderately hot. The carbon particles increase and then rise, where they heat until they ignite. The perceived colour is due to the ignition of the carbon particles. As they are heated, they glow or become “yellow-hot” in what is known as incandescence. They emit the full spectrum of visible light, but it is the yellow portion that is the most dominant.

The process of the wax being heated and then drawn up the wick, where it vaporizes and combines with oxygen in the air to combust, or burn, continues to repeat until all the wax has been burned or the heat has been eliminated. The combustion process may also take a few minutes after the candle has been lighted in order to stabilize.

This combustion process of a candle can be very efficient, but it isn’t perfect. All candles produce soot and smoke due to incomplete combustion. Insufficient oxygen is available to fully combust the soot particles, and some escape. This soot and smoke come from the bright yellow zone of the flame. If sufficient oxygen were available, then there would be no soot. Only carbon dioxide and water would be produced, and the entire flame would be blue.

The exact colour can indicate the temperature, the type of fuel, and the type of combustion taking place. Blue indicates complete combustion, such as in the case of a gas burner, while yellow indicates incomplete combustion, like in a candle flame.

In the next blog post of this series, we will begin to look into the general candle manufacturing process, starting with the preparation of the wick.