Author: Sara Darroch

All the information and material available for candles and candle making may feel overwhelming, but it is important to consider how a candle works, how it is made, and the source of the material. We can then use this information to help us in selecting candles and burning them safely.

In Part II of this series, we looked into how a candle works – how it burns. All candles produce soot as the result of incomplete combustion. The heat of a candle will incinerate some of the dust and other harmful airborne particles. But, as a result of the combustion process, particularly pyrolysis or the thermal decomposition of the fuel, can release substances such as carbon dioxide, water vapour, smoke, and other chemical and volatile organic compounds. The amount of soot or chemicals released can be affected by the presence of fragrances, colours, and other additives.

Nearly all fragrance ingredients and many colourants are volatile organic compounds. Many waxes are processed using volatile organic compounds, such as hexane, which may remain in the final product.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are organic compounds that contain carbon and easily become vapours or gases at room temperature. They can be naturally occurring and are found in all living things.

They can also be man-made and used as an ingredient and are used in many products that we use, including automotive fuels and other petroleum-based products, chemical solvents, building materials, office equipment, and craft materials. They are found in paints, varnishes, wood preservatives, aerosol sprays, moth repellents, air fresheners, pesticides, wax, cosmetics, cleaning and disinfecting products, and more. These compounds are emitted from the products when they are being manufactured, used, and sometimes even when stored.

Some VOCs may have no known effect on health while, while others are highly toxic and known carcinogens. The exact effect depends on the level and length of exposure, and the nature the particular VOC. Health effects can range from irritation of the eyes, nose and throat; headaches; dizziness; loss of coordination; and nausea to visual disorders; memory impairment; damage to the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system; and cancer.

Because all candles produce soot, that means that there is no such thing as a “healthy” candle, just healthier options.

In Part IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII of this series, we looked into various types of waxes. Now, we will overview some of the information to help in choosing the right candle.

Choosing the Candle

Paraffin wax is a petroleum-derived wax that must go through extensive refining and then texturizing or hardening to make it ready for use in candles. The process involves the use of chemicals such as industrial bleach, which can create toxic compounds known as dioxins, as well as chemicals such as acrolein that have been shown to result in respiratory tract irritation and DNA damage. The most fully refined paraffin wax still contains a percentage of oil, about 0.5%. Paraffin wax is also non-renewable and is not biodegradable due to petroleum by-products and additives. For these reasons paraffin wax is not recommended.

100% pure, unbleached beeswax is more expensive and offers a cleaner burn and natural colour and scent. Many beeswax or honey products are manufactured using methods that are inhumane to the bees, so it is recommended to find a local beekeeper who is devoted to the proper health and care of the bees. Some consumers may wish not to use any animal products, and this is where plant-based waxes may be a better alternative.

Soy wax is a popular choice for candles, but it is difficult to find a true, 100% pure soy candle. Most soy candles are extracted using the toxic chemical hexane. Chemical additives or other waxes, particularly paraffin, are usually blended in to improve hardness and help it hold dyes or fragrances. Preservatives are also added to prevent the wax from going rancid. Soybeans are often harvested from genetically modified crops that use herbicides and pesticides, which may leave a residue in the final product. The demand for soy has led to mass deforestation and the destruction of habits in many places. If choosing soy, you want to examine the candle manufacturer and their source of the soybeans to make sure they practice sustainable methods.

Palm wax does not require the same harsh solvents and chemicals as soy wax, but most palm oil harvest contribute to mass deforestation and destruction of the environment and animals, especially in Malaysia and Indonesia. It is very difficult to find a truly sustainable source, though there are some out there. Palm oil also possesses potential health risks when consumed, so you may prefer not to support the industry at all.

Waxes such as carnauba and bayberry are more expensive and may be harder to find, but often use less harsh solvents and chemicals than both soy and palm waxes. Coconut wax is less well known than other waxes, and the process of extracting the oil also requires less chemicals, depending on the method. However, it is soft and is usually combined with other waxes to add strength. Like most plant waxes, not all sources are sustainable or eco-friendly. It is always recommended to check into the company you are purchasing your candle from, and the source from which they obtain the oil.

Beeswax is an excellent option for having a cleaner burning candle. If you would rather not use beeswax, then, overall, plant waxes are a better option. They tend to contain less chemicals than petroleum-based waxes such as paraffin, though this does depend heavily on the extraction and refining methods used, and can be made using sustainable, renewable methods and are biodegradable.

Look for candles that have cotton or paper/cotton blend wicks. Avoid wicks that contain lead. These wicks have been banned from North America, but may still be found in candles made elsewhere. You can test for lead by rubbing the tip of an unburnt candle wick on a white piece of paper. Light grey marks are a sign that it may contain lead.

If you want a scented candle, look for those that are both phthalate and solvent free. Fragrance formulas are considered proprietary in North America, which means the ingredients do not have to be listed or shared in any way. You can still attempt to look into the manufacturer and contact them to see if they will provide you with any information. Many fragrances and colourants are made from toxic chemicals.

It can be better to look for candles scented with 100% essential oils because you can have a better idea of what components are in it. Nevertheless, you still want to be careful. Essential oils can go through different methods of extraction or distillation and not all of them can be subjected to high heat. The heat from the candle flame can break down the molecular structure of the essential oil, so that none of its health properties remain.

If a candle contains essential oils, it is recommended to try to find out which essential oils are used, and then research to see if it can be subjected to heat. Avoid any essential oils or fragrance with limonene, a natural substance commonly found in citrus fruit. It can reaction with ozone to create formaldehyde.

If you are mainly choosing candles because you enjoy the sent, then an essential oil diffuser may be a better option. Diffusers do not subject the essential oil to high temperatures, meaning you retain any of its aromatherapy benefits. Be careful using certain essential oils around pets, particularly cats. By using a diffuser, you can get the scent and benefits of essential oils without the soot or breakdown into other chemicals.

Another option is a candle warmer, an electric warmer that melts the wax without the need for a flame. While this does prevent the candle from reaching high temperatures, it can still cause some substances in the wax to break down and release into the air. The types of substances released depend on the components used in the candle, such as the type of wax, wick, scent or colour.

It is also recommended to avoid coloured candles. The process of adding colourants to the candle can be complex, since there are many variables, including the humidity and temperature of the room, the temperature of the wax, the brand and type of colouring agent, how well it is stirred in, and the amount of colour being added. All these factors can influence the wick, and whether it clogs. You can also try colouring your own candles using herbs and spices. Again, you want to be very careful, since anything added to the wax can change its composition and how it burns.

Most well made candles, so long as their wicks are lead free, may pose little threat if you only burn one every once in awhile. Over time, however, if you burn candles in an enclosed space, burn them frequently, or burn more than one at a time, you can contribute to air pollution. These candles, particularly if they contain toxic or hazardous compounds, can emit unhealthy levels of chemicals and toxins in the air and aggravate asthma or irritate the respiratory tract.

There are some things you can do to help your candle burn better, reduce the amount of soot, and reduce the risk of starting a fire.

Safety

When burning a candle, it is generally recommended to let it burn long enough so that the whole top layer of wax becomes liquid. This can prevent the candle from burning unevenly and tunnelling (when only the wax near the wick meals, leaving a ring of hard wax on the outer edge).

Blowing out a candle flame can cause increased soot and smoke and may cause droplets of hot wax to blow on nearby surfaces. Extinguishing a candle flame with water may cause hot water to splatter and glass containers to break. Instead, use a candle snuffer or extinguisher or wick dipper.

The term “candle snuffer” is often used to refer to any type of instruments that puts out a candle flame. However, a candle snuffer is a scissor like device with a raised bowl atop that is used to snip the wick, which is caught in the bowl.

A candle extinguisher consists of a long handle with a small cone at one end. The cone is placed over the flame, where it deprives it of oxygen.

A wick dipper is a thin, flat tool with a hook on one end. The larger, flat end is used to push the burning wick into the melted wax to extinguished the flame; and the narrower, hooked end is used to pull the wick back up. These tools help reduce the amount of soot and smoke that is produced when the flame is extinguished.

Candles should be lit in a well ventilated room, but keep the flame away from air currents such as drafts, vents or ceiling fans. These types of air currents can blow nearby items into the flame or cause the flame to flicker and burn unevenly. Also keep candles away from children and pets and material that can catch fire, such as curtains, bedding, cabinetry, upholstered furniture, decorations, and clothing. Be careful not to knock into the candle or surface it’s on or drop anything into it.

If lighting multiple candles, keep them at least three inches apart. Do not let a candle burn all the way down since it may burn through the candle holder. For container candles, discontinue burning when ½ inch of wax remains. For other candles, you can burn it until 2 inches remain, or according to manufacturer specifications.

Use candle holders that are designed for candle use and are heat resistant, sturdy, large enough to contain any drips or melted wax, and well-ventilated. Keep the candle on a stable, heat resistant surface to prevent heat damage. Use caution when using candles in glass candle holders or containers, since they can break if they get too hot.

Keep wicks trimmed to ¼” and remove all debris before lighting to prevent the wick from getting too hot or the flame too big and prevent black soot or smoke. Trim the wick again every 2-3 hours when burning a candle for a long time. It is not recommended to keep a candle lit for more than a few hours, or longer than what the manufacturer recommends. Be particularly cautious when lighting a candle that contains more than one wick, and avoid buying candles with multiple wicks close together.

Another type of candle, known as relight, trick or magic candles, can spontaneously reignite after the flame has been extinguished and become a fire hazard. This type of candle should be avoided and is prohibited in some countries. Decorations such as ribbon, paper or plant material that is added to the wax may be extremely flammable and increase risk of fires.

Never leave a burning candle unattended. Be careful not to fall asleep or leave the room or house when a candle is burning, and do not use the candle as a night light. Candles are a popular choice of light during power outages, but this should be done with extreme caution. There is an increased risk of knocking the candle over and causing a fire. Candles should not be touched or moved while burning.

Always watch your candle to see if it is burning properly. If a burning candle begins to smoke, flicker, or the flame becomes too high, extinguish it, trim the wick, and check for any drafts or air currents before relighting. If the candle still isn’t burning properly after proper care and maintenance, then it may have a design flaw, and shouldn’t be used.

Be sure to check the manufacturer for any specific instructions and safety tips regarding the style of candle you are using. Elevations above 2000 feet may also affect burn properties due to less oxygen being available.

Every Decision Can Have Major Impact

A single candle may seem like a small, unimportant thing. Yet, by every one of us paying attention to all of the small things that affect our health, we can begin to make a big difference on our environment. Every choice we make can influence the industries we choose to support and the amount of toxins we put into our air and bodies. Taking control of our health and lives begins by paying attention to the products we use and choosing those that provide the most benefits with the least amount of toxins or harsh chemicals.

A candle can symbolize something much deeper and bigger than what it is. Throughout history, candles have symbolized life, hope, and more. Similarly, the seemingly small choices we make everyday on the products we use or the actions we take can have a much bigger impact that we realize. You can then get greater enjoyment out of the products that you choose knowing that they aren’t damaging your health.

As you feel the warmth and gentle glow of a burning candle, you can relax in knowing that you have chosen one that is best for your needs, lifestyle, health, and environment.

In Part III, we looked into the preparation of the wick for making candles, and in parts IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII, we looked into the different waxes. In parts IX and X, we looked into the fragrance and colourant ingredients. Each of the materials and ingredients used play a role in the burning properties and health effects of the candle.

Once the wax has been chosen, melted, mixed with any fragrance and/or colour, and stirred thoroughly it is ready for the next step: moulding, pressing/extrusion, or dipping. (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Candle.html).

Moulding

Moulding can be done by hand or by using manual or continuous moulding machines,. The continuous moulding machines are made to make candles in large groups. The exact process for preparing the moulds and wicks, and the method for pouring, depend on the type of candle and wax, and whether you are preparing the mould by hand or through a machine.

Clean moulds should be used to improve results. These moulds may be made from tin, aluminum, polyurethane, polycarbonate, rubber, silicone, latex, and more. Aluminum moulds are a popular choices because they leave a smooth finish without seams and are cheaper and easier to clean. However, they are not flexible and a releasing agent may be sprayed on the mould to help remove the candle. Certain waxes may shrink after heating and cooling. Some moulds, such as polyurethane, are flexible but have a strong odour. Glass containers are generally used for making container candles.

Moulds are usually preheated so that wax flows evenly and to allow for better side adhesion and to eliminate moisture or get rid of any “chill.” Only dry heat should be used and not hot water.

A wick is then introduced into the mould. The procedure used depends on the type of mould and candle being made. The wick may be pulled through a hole at the base of the mould and secured across the top. In a continuous moulding machine, the wick may be passed from a spool located beneath the machine. Another method uses a wick pin (a long metal pin that may come in a variety of diameters) to create a hole for the wick to be inserted in later.

The wax is cooled down to the lowest temperature possible, or slightly above its melting point, before it is poured into the mould. In the case of a moulding machine, the wax may be poured into a moulding table above the moulds, where it works its way down. If pouring by hand, make sure to poor slowly. The wax should reach just below the edge of the mould, though it does depend on the type of mould and style of candle. The wax is left to cool.

Many waxes naturally shrink or sink in, or concave, when cooling and a second pour may be needed. A jacket may be filled with cold water and placed around each mould to speed up the cooling process.

The temperature and humidity levels of the room all make a difference on the pour temperature and amount of preheating needed for the container or mould.

Once the candle has completely solidified, it can be removed. The removal process depends on the type of mould. Do not force the candle out, but gently work it out. You may have to tap the bottom of the mould and gently tug the wick pin, or you may grab the candle, and gently work it away from the mould. A hair dryer may also be used to soften the wax enough to help get it loose.

In a continuous moulding machine, the finished candle is pulled upwards out of the mould, which allows the wicks to thread through the moulds again for the next batch of candles.

The wicks are then trimmed to the correct size.

Pressing/Extrusion

Pressing involves compressing powdered or crushed paraffin wax into a candle shape with a press, which can include mechanical presses, hydraulic presses, or extruders.

Mechanical presses are used to make small-diameter candles with a pre-shaped wick hole, while hydraulic presses are used to make candles of various sizes with pre-inserted wick or a pre-shaped wick hole.

In extrusion, the wax and the wick are compressed in a pipe or cylindrical chamber under high pressure. The wax is then forced through a coned shaped exit, where the machine extrudes it as a long, continuous strand which is cut to specific sizes.

Hand Rolling

The candles may also be hand rolled or dipped. Hand rolled involving tightly rolling sheets of wax, such as in the case of rolled beeswax candles. These candles tend to trap more air, and thus burn faster.

Dipping

Dipping involves continuously dipping the prepared wick into melted wax until it adheres and achieves the desired thickness. Candles may also be dipped into clear or coloured lacquers to create a particularly shiny surface.

The finished candle may also be hand-painted and embellished with flower petals or other objects or accessories. Candle making is a science, but it is also a creative endeavour that involves constant experimentation. Even if you are not a candle maker, you can still enjoy looking into the techniques used in preparing these candles.

The aim of both candle maker and consumer should be the same on one factor: safety. Unless the candle has been made purely for decorative purposes and will not be lit, it should be constructed to provide a cleaner burn with minimal soot or smoking. The material should be non-toxic, eco-friendly, sustainable, and renewable.

In the next blog post in this series, we will go into some tips to keep in mind when selecting a candle as well as health and safety concerns.

In the previous blog post, we looked into candle fragrances. Another additive that plays a significant role in the burning properties and health effects of the candle is the colouring ingredients.

When wax is obtained for use in making candles, it is usually white or cream in colour. A notable exception to that is unbleached beeswax candles, which have a natural golden hue.

The interest in adding dyes to candles is relatively recent. Original candles, such as those made from tallow, beeswax, seeds, and other materials were not usually coloured for aesthetics, though some colour may result depending on the materials being used. The primary factors that influenced the materials chosen for candles were smell and burning properties, such as the production of less smoke.

Candles now are not only chosen for a pleasant odour and cleaner burn, but for decoration. Sometimes, these decorative candles are never burned. When choosing a candle with a particular odour, the consumer may also expect the candle to possess a colour that reflects that the scent. For instance, if the candle has the scent of cinnamon, they may expect it to also be bronze in colour. Most colourants for candles are synthetic. New shades, hues, and formulas are introduced every year.

Unfortunately, as in the case of fragrances, colourant formulas are considered propriety and the manufacturers do not have to reveal the ingredients they use.

Colourants can come in a variety of forms, including liquids, gels, oils, wax chips, solids, powders, and pigments, and can come from a number of sources, including herbs, flowers, berries, nuts, roots, resins, beans, clays, oxides, ochers, metals, minerals, insect and animal extracts, and synthetic compounds. Because wax is insoluble in water, colourants that contain water or glycerine will not work. Food colouring is a type of water based colour that will not mix with wax.

Two main categories of colourants are dyes and pigments.

Dyes are the most common form of colourant in candles because they are easily combustible and dissolve in liquids or other substances. Depending on the composition, they may be water or oil soluble. They may come chip, block, liquid, or powder form.

Chip and block dyes are made of wax, which can include paraffin or vegetable based, with a pre-measured amount of dye.

Dye chips come in a wide variety of colours and are easy to use. You simply drop one into the wax at the beginning of the melting process. If using multiple chips, you may want to wait until the previous chip has dissolved before adding another one.

Blocks are more concentrated than chips and are best suited for colouring larger quantities of wax. They can be used for smaller quantities by shaving pieces off, but this makes it harder to measure and get consistent results.

Liquid dye is the most concentrated and only a few drops are needed. It is easier to measure, which helps in getting consistent results. The disadvantage to liquid dye is that it may have a strong, unpleasant odour that may affect the candle fragrance if a lot is used.

Powdered dye is extremely concentrated and provides the base for most other dyes. It comes in a limited range of colours, but can be blended to create more. This type of dye may need to be mixed with solvents or oils when used in wax to help with dispersion and prevent undissolved particles.

The intensity and colour of the dye will vary by manufacturer. Dyes used in soy wax will appear more pastel.

One of the most common colourants used in candles is aniline dyes. Aniline dyes are manufactured from the chemical aniline. Aniline is an artificially produced chemical that was first obtained in 1826 by the destructive distillation of indigo, but is now commonly derived from benzene, a toxic, volatile compound present in coal tar and petroleum. It may also be prepared from phenol and ammonia.

Aniline is used in the manufacture of: dyes and dye intermediates for fabric, leather, wood, food, and more; rubber processing chemicals; pharmaceutical products; photographic chemicals; isocyanates for the urethane industry; herbicides; fungicides; and diphenylamine for the rubber, petroleum, plastics, agricultural, explosives and chemical industries.

The chemical is toxic by inhalation of the vapour, absorption through skin, and ingestion, but the extent of its effect on health depend on the amount, type, and duration of the exposure. Significant exposure occurs when working with the chemical, and can result in the formation of methemoglobin, a form of hemoglobin (the protein in red blood cells that is responsible for transporting oxygen from our lungs to the cells in our body) that is not able to bind to oxygen. Some methemoglobin occurs naturally, but too much can result in insufficient delivery of oxygen.

Symptoms associated with aniline toxicity and increased methemoglobin formation include headache, fatigue, dizziness, irregular heart rhythm, and even loss of consciousness or death. Aniline can be irritating to the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract. Long-term exposure can affect the nervous system, cause liver damage, and and may cause the destruction of red blood cells.

Amounts of colourants in candles are said to be of minute quantities that have little to no affect on health, but without knowing the exact formula and concentration, there is no guarantee.

Pigments consist of very fine particles that do not dissolve. They can be made from natural sources or synthesized, and are categorized as organic or inorganic. Organic pigments are carbon-containing compounds that can be from insect, animal, or plant matter, such as herbs, spices, flowers, roots, and resins.

Inorganic pigments can include natural compounds such as natural iron oxide, bentonite mineral, natural micas, and natural zinc oxide; and synthetic compounds such as synthetic iron oxides, titanium dioxide, chromium oxide green, ultramarines, and synthetic micas. While natural pigments may not contain some of the harsh chemicals that synthetic pigments do, some of them may still be laced with dangerous components, such as heavy metals.

The pigments currently used as colouring agents for candles are usually man-made. Similar to fragrances, they may be nature identical. They may have the same chemical structure as minerals or other compounds found in the earth or in plants.

Pigments should only be used on the exterior of the candle, usually by dipping the candle in it. They do not burn well and may clog the candle wick and result in increased smoking or cause the wick to stop burning. Many people have used melted crayons to colour candles, but this is not recommended since it may contain pigments or other particles that may clog the wick.

There are many different types of pigment or dye compounds that are available. Most synthetic dyes or pigments are derived primarily from coal tars and petrochemicals, but it is nearly impossible to list all the ingredients that are used, particularly since manufacturers do not have to disclose formulas or ingredients.

Common colourants may also contain solvents, which can include carcinogens such as toluene, xylene, and benzene, though there are some that use vegetable based solvents and oils.

Conventional candle colourants are specially formulated so at not to interfere with the burning of the candle, but that doesn’t mean that they do not contain potentially hazardous compounds that could be released in the air during the combustion process when the candle is lit.

True all-natural candle colourants aren’t generally available to purchase. Most natural, organic and plant derived dyes are water soluble, which means they cannot be used in candles. You can create your own colours by infusing spices/herbs such as turmeric, paprika, beet, and plant leaves in oil (known as oil infusion).

One method of oil infusion involves melting wax in a kettle or double boiler and then dropping in a heat sealable tea bag or a coffee filter tied with string or a twist tie that is filled with herbs. Let the herbal bag steep on low heat for several hours, or until the colour of the herbs tint the wax, before removing. The coloured wax can be used as is to make a candle, or it can be blended into other waxes to provide some colour.

Spices added directly to hot wax may act more like a pigment. Mashed fruit, such as blackberries or blueberries, and dried and/or crushed flower petals may also be used to create colour. One should always use caution when adding substances directly to candle wax, since they have the potential of clogging the wick and preventing its ability to burn properly.

If making your own candles, be careful not to add too much colour. Too much colourant can clog the wick and affect overall scent. The type and amount of colourant you use depends on the size, shape, and type of wax of the candle. Also, be careful when handling colourants since they can stain surfaces, skin, clothing, and other material, and may cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.

Coloured candles may fade over time due to heat, light, fragrance and other agents in the candle.

Now that we have looked into the fragrance and colourant ingredients used and their effect on the candle, in the next blog post we’ll look into the final step in the manufacturing or candle making process: moulding, pressing/extrusion, or dipping.

Waxes may come in pellet, flakes, or block forms. In candle making or manufacturing process, this wax measured to the amount you need and then heated and melted into a near-liquid state in metal kettles or a double-boiler system. The size and type of the melting system depends on the quantity of wax being used. “Wax melted by direct flame can become dark-coloured or can contain small pieces of carbon char” (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Candle.html).

The temperatures needed depend on the type of wax being used. Achieving the proper temperature is a crucial factor in creating the correct structure and uniform appearance of the wax. If the temperature is either too hot or too cold for the type of wax being used it can cause poor adhesion and may result in the candle being too hard, brittle, or soft.

This molten wax may then go through further filtration and at this stage any fragrances and dyes are added.

Fragrances

One of the leading factors that influences a consumer’s decision to buy a candle is fragrance. The scent of the candle can help mask other scents, such as sweat, and can help promote relaxation.

Because wax is not water soluble, colouring that contains water does not work, and so oils are used. Before using in candles these fragrance oils may be tested for solvency, absorption, flash point, specific gravity, and flammability. Additives such as vybar may also be used to increase the wax’s ability to retain higher fragrance loads.

Scent throw is the strength (intensity) and radius of the fragrance that is released from the candle. Cold scent throw is the aroma emitted when the candle is stored, and hot scent throw is the aroma emitted when the candle is lit or burning. A good scent throw (a strong scent that carries) is dependant on a proper burn pool. Most of the the aroma that comes from the fragrance in a candle is released through evaporation of the hot wax pool. Some of the scent may be released when the oil travels up the wick and its vapour combusts.

The aroma emitted from scented candles are a combination of three notes: the top note, the middle note, and the base note. These levels of scent work together to create a scent that is long lasting and pleasant.

The top note is the lightest, and is the initial impression you get when you first smell the fragrance oil or candle. It is the most volatile, which means it tends to evaporate the quickest. The middle note is the “body” of the fragrance and is the most prominent. It is smelled after the top notes have faded, a process that can take 10 to 20 minutes. The base note is the heaviest. It is smelled last, and can linger in the air for hours after the candle is extinguished. The base notes are what give the fragrance lasting qualities (“staying power”) and are essential in achieving good scent throw.

Fragrances that contain high levels of heavy bases notes such as musk may require a larger wick in order to travel up the wick and evaporate.

Some fragrance oils will travel up the wick more easily than others. They will also have different flash points and specific gravity. Flash points is the temperature at which the oil can combust when exposed to a flame. A candle with a higher flash point and specific gravity requires a hotter burning wick to allow the fragrance to evaporate out of the wax, while a candle with a lower flash point and specific gravity requires a smaller wick.

Each chemical component in a fragrance has a different flash point, which leads to widely variable flash points in the oils. Adding fragrances with a flash point that is lower than that of the wax may cause it to be “burned,” or deteriorated, resulting in a weak scent.

Finding the right concentration of fragrance depends on several factors, such as the type of wax, the size and shape of the finished candle, and the brand, type and components of the fragrance. Temperature of the wax is also a critical factor when incorporating the fragrance and to prevent the fragrance from dissipating or binding uniformly to the wax.

Two main types of fragrances used in candles include: essential oils and synthetic fragrance oils. Essential oils are derived from a natural substance, such as plant material, flowers, leaves, wood and grass, while synthetic fragrance oils may be reproduced synthetically using scientific methods.

Essential oils are the liquids obtained from distilling any part of a plant, including the seeds, roots, bark, stems, leaves, fruit, flowers, and branches. Therapeutic/aromatherapy essential oils are distilled directly from the plant itself without the use of additives.

Although essential oils are natural, that does not mean they are all suited for use in candles. Not all essential oils are meant to be subjected to high heat and can release harmful compounds. The combustion can change the molecular structure of the essential oil, which can destroy any potential medicinal or aromatherapy benefits it might have had and may make it unsafe.

An example is limonene. Limonene is a compound that occurs naturally in plants, such as in the peel of oranges and lemons. When you peel the lemon or orange, or crush the peel, some of the limonene is released into the air. Once released into the air, this limonene may react with trace amounts of naturally occurring ozone, causing one in every two limonene molecules to mutate into formaldehyde (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/12103003/Why-scented-candles-could-cause-cancer.html).

When released in small amounts, such as in the case of that released from orange or lemon peels, it is not known to be toxic. Limonene is still an important compound for health when consumed. However, candles may contain higher concentrations that may be released into the air when burned. This may result in the formation of higher concentrations of formaldehyde.

To use essential oils, you want to select those that can handle high temperatures, such as those produced through steam distillation, and then add them to the wax at low temperatures. Only certain waxes, such as soy and coconut wax, can melt at low enough temperatures to do that. Essential oils produced through pressing or solvent extraction may be too delicate to withstand the heat.

Trace amounts of the solvent can remain in the essential oil if it is not completely dissolved out before use. For that reason, it is recommended to look for solvent free essential oils.

Essential oils are more expensive than synthetic fragrances, and do not provide the same variety of scents or scent strength. They may also not blend as easily in waxes.

They do provide more depth in their aroma, and do not contain nearly as many carcinogens (cancer-causing substances) and other hazardous chemicals. You can also combine essential oils to create your own unique blend.

Diluents (a diluting agent) may be added to essential oils to thin them out so that they can travel up the wick and burn correctly. Diluents may include synthetic substances such as Isopropyl myristate, or di-Octyl Adipate, or natural substances such as fractionated coconut oil or soy oil.

A synthetic fragrance may be made from “natural” and synthetic ingredients, of which there is over 3000. These ingredients may include a carrier base, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, toluene, benzene, synthesizers, phthalates, and other synthetic compounds. Many of these chemicals are derived from petroleum. They may also contain natural isolates, a single chemical that is isolated from a plant and has a scent.

Phthalates are a group of chemicals often used as plasticizers, substances added to plastics to make them flexible, resilient, and easier to handle. They are also used in cosmetics, hairspray, fragrances, insecticides, and a number of other products. In fragrances, they are used as solvents, blenders, surfactants and fixatives to hold colour and scent and make them last longer.

While some phthalates have not currently been shown to have any effect on health, others, including diethyl phthalate (DEP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) have been linked to endocrine disruption (they can mimic or behave like certain hormones and interfere with normal hormonal activity in the body), altered reproductive function and development, fertility problems, organ toxicity, and a potential carcinogen. Children and pregnant women in particular should be cautious of using products that contain certain phthalates.

The full effect of phthalates on human health is not yet fully known or comprehensively studied. Europe has regulated and banned the use of some of these phthalates, including DEP, but they are still allowed in North America, where no labelling is required for fragrances.

Many of the natural ingredients in fragrances are still synthetic in that they are synthesized, or made, in a lab instead of being extracted. These types of hand-made “natural” compounds are known as nature-identical because they possess a chemical structure that is similar to its essential oil counterpart. Completely synthetic chemical compounds are those that do not exist in nature.

These ingredients are usually in the form of a liquid, powder, or crystalline, and must be dissolved by solvents to create the fragrance oil. Similar to essential oils, a diluent may also be used to adjust the density of the oil so that it can be pulled up the wick to be burned. It may also be added to some fragrances in order to reduce the strength so that it can be sold at a lower price. For both synthetic fragrances and essential oils you want to avoid diluents such as dipropylene glycol (DPG) because they can prevent the candle from burning properly.

The variety of compounds available mean that there is almost an unlimited amount of combinations or scents that can be created. This is how “sugar cookie” or “bubblegum” scents can be available since they do not naturally occur in nature.

Synthetic fragrances are often preferred because they are less expensive, more widely available, can be more easily combined with additives or other compounds to improve its ability to work with different types of wax, and can provide a more concentrated and consistent odour.

However, while the National Candle Association claims that properly formulated scented candles will primarily produce water vapour and carbon dioxide when burned, there is always the potential for any compound to be broken down during the pyrolysis process (the decomposition of material in the presence of high temperatures) and released into the air. A type of compound that may be released into the air include volatile organic compounds.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are carbon-containing chemicals that have high vapour pressure, meaning they will readily evaporate and become vapours or gases at room temperature. Some VOCs occur naturally, while others may be synthetically produced. For instance, human’s release VOCs through their skin and when they exhale. Plants also produce a broad range of VOCs that play an important role in protecting them from stress and pathogens, attracting insects for pollination and seed dispersal, and as a form of communication or signalling to other plants, as well as animals.

VOCs may also be emitted by solvents, paints, air fresheners, pesticides, fire retardants, burning fuel, stored fuel and automotive products, hobby supplies, glue, correction fluids, and many building materials and household cleaning and disinfectant products. Most scents and odours, both natural and synthetic, are comprised of VOCs. Not all VOCS are harmful to health, but many are, including benzene, toluene, and aldehydes (including formaldehyde).

Health effects experienced depend on the type, concentration, and length of exposure to the VOC, but they can include irritation of the eyes, nose; and throat; headaches; loss of coordination; nausea; fatigue; dizziness; visual disorders; memory impairment; and damage to the liver, kidney, and central nervous system. A number of VOCs are considered to be proven or probable human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances) and have been shown to cause cancer in animals.

VOCs are a major contributor to indoor air pollution, and it is recommended to limit exposure.

Fragrance formulas are regarded as “proprietary” in North America, which means that fragrance manufacturers do not have to disclose the ingredients. They simply have to state “fragrance” on the label.

The fragrance, whether an essential oil or synthetic fragrance, must be compatible with your chosen wax and must be added using the right concentrations and temperatures, or they may cause a lumpy surface, poor adhesion, small diameter burn pools, poor scent throw, and poor burning properties, such as mushrooming or sooting.

Both essential oils and synthetic fragrances can be potential allergens that can aggravate asthma symptoms or cause other reactions in sensitive individuals, and should be selected and used with care.

After the wax and fragrance are incorporated, they should allowed time to “cure,” or given time to bind together.

In the next blog post, we will look into colourants.

In the previous blog posts, we looked into plant waxes palm, carnauba, bayberry and soy. Now we will look into a relatively new plant wax known as coconut wax.

Coconut Oil and Coconut Wax

Coconut wax is not as popular or as well known as other types of waxes due to being harder to find and more expensive. It has been gaining interest as an alternative to paraffin candles because it is considered cleaner burning, and as an alternative to soy because it is considered more sustainable and eco-friendly to harvest.

Non-organic coconuts may be grown using large quantities of fertilizer, pesticides, and herbicides, and may then be treated with bleaching agents, fungicides, and preservatives for transport. Pesticide residue, however, has not been detected in coconut water or coconut oil in several studies. It is still recommended to purchase organic since less harsh chemicals are released into the air and absorbed by the coconut tree, but it is interesting to note that the tough shell of the coconut can act as a natural barrier even in the case of non organic farming.

As is the case with the source of most waxes, the processing method plays a major role in the chemicals that are present in the final product. Coconut wax is made from the meat (white flesh) of a mature coconut. A coconut takes 12 months to fully mature from a new flower. These coconuts are the seeds, or fruit, of the coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, part of the palm family, Arecaceae.

The exact origin of the coconut palm is not known and is still a subject for debate. It is currently cultivated worldwide across tropical and subtropic areas. This “tree,” as it called, is not like a tree at all since it contains no bark and usually no branches, knots, or growth rings inside. The trunk is the “stem” of the plant, and is covered with fibres or possibly spines. The particular characteristics of the trunk does depend on the variety and growing conditions.

The coconut consists of three parts: the exocarp or outer layer which is usually smooth and greenish or brownish in colour, depending on ripeness; the mesocarp, the middle layer or fibrous husk; and the endocarp, the hard and woody shell that surrounds the seed. The white edible flesh that forms on the inner surface of the shell and the water contained within provide nourishment for the “baby” plant if the coconut is left to germinate and sprout. The coconuts available at supermarkets have usually had the exocarp and/or mesocarp removed, hence the difference in appearance.

The coconuts are harvested, usually by cutting them down or collecting those that have already dropped. Waiting for the coconut to drop can be dangerous since they are very hard and may fall on the harvester’s head.

The coconut oil comes from the flesh of the coconut, also known as the kernel. There are two main, broad categories of coconut oil, refined and unrefined (also known as virgin or extra virgin), that go through different methods of processing.

Refined coconut oil is usually made from copra, or dried coconut flesh, the major commercial product of coconut. The coconut is split and the flesh removed and then dried using smoke, fire, sunlight, or kilns or a combinations of the methods over a few days.

This drying process has received controversy due to its “unsanitary” nature and risk of contamination. The removed coconut meat is usually placed on a rack over a fire, or left to sun dry. This means the flesh is exposed to bacteria from airborne particles and nearby wildlife such as insects and birds. The process also creates an unhealthy environment for the workers, who are also exposed the bacteria. The amount of heat, moisture, or other environmental factors all affect the stability and quality of the copra.

The inedible copra is then packed and transported to a processing facility, where it is then processed in order to extract the coconut oil and remove contamination. The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents (usually hexane) in order to separate the oil from the meal. The extraction process involves extremely high heat. The residual meal is of low quality and is usually used as animal feed.

In its current state, the coconut, or copra, oil is brown in colour and is not suitable for consumption. It must go through further refining, bleaching, and deodorization. This is known as RBD (Refinement, Bleaching, and Deodorization). The refining process may involve using hydrochloric acids, solvents, and steam. The bleaching process may involve filtering through bleaching clays and the deodorization process uses high heat to remove the odour and flavour. Sodium hydroxide is often added to remove free fatty acids and prolong shelf life.

Unrefined coconut oil is made from fresh coconut meat instead of copra. It is the least refined oil (all coconut oils requires some level of processing in order to extract the oil, which is not readily available). There is no worldwide certification or regulatory body to determine or regulate the term “virgin.” This means that anyone can use the term, and the only way to know for certain is to research or contact the company.

The extraction process for making unrefined coconut oil involves two main processes: quick drying or wet milling. In the quick drying process, the coconut meat is subjected to minimal heat before the oil is mechanically pressed out. In the wet milling process, coconut milk is expressed by combining grated coconut milk and water and then pressing. The oil is then separated from the water by boiling, fermentation, refrigeration, enzymes, or mechanical centrifuge.

Unrefined oil extraction is usually done at lower temperatures with minimal to no refining or bleaching in order to preserve the nutrients and to retain the coconut flavour and scent, which can range from mild to intense depending on the extraction method used. The oil is usually exposed to maximum temperatures of 104° F, but may reach temperatures up to 200° F depending on the company and the extraction method used. The higher the temperature, the more “roasted” the coconut flavour and odour will be.

There is no such thing as “no heat” extraction methods since heat is generated through friction. This is especially true when machines are used. The purpose of unrefined coconut oil is to expose the coconut and its components to minimal or lowest heat possible in order to retain its nutrients and enzyme activity.

The less the coconut oil is refined, there is a greater chance that the final product may contain dust particles or other substances. Conversely, the fact that unrefined coconut uses a shorter drying time means that there is less exposure to bacteria and pathogens from the environment.

Common methods of extracting the oil that may be used in refined and unrefined oils include centrifugal, cold-pressed, expeller pressed, and fermentation.

In the centrifugal process, the coconut milk is extracted and then put into a high speed centrifuge machine that spins rapidly. This causes the oil to move toward the centre, where it can be collected. The temperature of the coconut milk, time of the rotations and rotation speed all make a difference in the efficiency and the quality of the oil.

Cold pressed and expeller pressed are similar methods that involve squeezing the oil out of the coconuts using pressure and weight from a mechanical press. Expeller pressed can be either heat or cold pressed. Heat may be generated from the friction of the nuts or seeds in in the expeller machine. Unlike the name may suggest, the cold pressed method does still generate heat, but the temperature is regulated to keep it at a lower level to prevent the loss of nutrients.

The fermentation process uses coconut milk. The coconut milk is allowed to sit and ferment, usually for 24 to 36 hours. This causes the heavier water to sink while the oil remains on top. The oil is then skimmed off and put into a pan, where it is then heated to remove moisture and filtered. The temperature used in the heating process can vary, from minimal heat to almost boiling.

The oils obtained from these other methods may be filtered or further refined in chemical distillation, which uses harsh chemical solvents.

The variability in methods and use of chemicals in the extraction of coconut oil makes it difficult to know the quality or nutritional value unless the company is looked into or contacted.

Coconut wax is generally made from refined oil. The amount of “scent” that remains depends on the brand of the wax. To make the oil into a wax, it goes through the process of hydrogenation, similar to the process of making soy wax, in order to increase the melting point and make it more solid. However, the creamy white wax is still incredibly soft, and is blended with other waxes to make it solid at room temperature and strong enough to use for a candle.

Whether coconut wax is more sustainable or eco friendly than other waxes depends on the source of the coconut and coconut oil and the harvesting and extracting processes used. It is, however, a renewable resource and is biodegradable like other plant waxes.

Unlike soy wax, coconut wax is said to have a good scent throw and works well with fragrance and essential oils. It may also burn cooler and longer than other waxes.

These are only some of the many, many waxes available. Others include candelilla wax, made from the surface of the Euphorbia cerifera shrub; the Myrica fruit wax, obtained from the Myrica Pubescens tree; gel “wax,” a transparent, rubbery compound generally made of 95% mineral oil and 5% polymer resin; and many more plant-based, petroleum-based, mineral-based, polymer-based, or mixed waxes that provide various burning and scent properties.

Many of these waxes are not only used in candles, but in cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. Knowing how these waxes are made is not only important for making or choosing candles, but for understanding some of the material that are in other products that we use.

Most waxes have already gone through refinement and filtration, but some candle makers or manufacturers may filter the wax again before making into the candle.

Now that we have examined the properties of some of the waxes available, we will look into fragrances and dyes, and the moulding and extrusion process of the candle, in the following parts of the series.

In the previous blog post, we looked into the plant waxes palm, carnauba, and bayberry, and in this blog post we will look into soy wax, a wax that has recently surged in popularity.

Soy Wax

Soy wax burns at a lower temperature and is less expensive than beeswax, and is claimed to be cleaner, slower and longer burning than paraffin wax with less soot; as well as sustainable; renewable; carbon neutral (having zero carbon footprint or no net greenhouse gas emissions); and biodegradable.

To understand whether these claims are true, it is helpful to look into how soy wax is made. The exact composition and production method depends on the manufacturer, but the common process begins with harvesting the soybeans, which usually comes from genetically modified crops. Genetically modified soybeans have been altered (specific genes added to the genetic composition) to resist herbicides. The crops can then treated with these herbicides to get rid of surrounding weeds without destroying the soybeans themselves.

The altered genetic composition could potentially create a new allergen or allergic reactions in people who are sensitive, and can result in the development of herbicide-resistant weeds. Furthermore, GMO means that crops are commercially farmed with pesticides and herbicides. These chemical substances can harm neighbouring crops and other plant species that aren’t resistant to them.

They can also release volatile organic compounds; compounds that easily become gases or vapours and can contain elements that are harmful to human and animal health. This includes harming the health of the harvester. Rain or water can wash off pesticides and herbicides and may cause them to leach into the soil. How long the pesticide or herbicide persists in the soil before breaking down depends on their chemical content and the type of soil. They also have the potential to contaminate drinking water by making their way into groundwater or surface water systems.

While soy is a renewable resource, it is not necessarily sustainable. The increased demand for soy, particularly GMO soy, in the animal feed industry as well as for human consumption and industrial processes, has raised concern over deforestation, unhealthy levels of pesticides and herbicides, and contamination of drinking water. This mass production puts strain on our environment.

If using soybeans or soy oil, is crucial to purchase from a certified organic company that uses sustainable, environmentally friendly methods.

After harvesting, the soybeans are cleaned, cracked, and dehulled. The seed may then go through mechanical pressing to separate the oil from the solid components, or it may be rolled into flakes, where the oil is extracted using solvent extraction.

In mechanical pressing, the seed is compressed in a container with small perforations. Enough force or pressure is exerted on the seed to rupture the cells and force the oil out. This alone does not remove all the oil from the seed, and may be followed by chemical extraction.

Solvent extraction is usually the preferred method because it yields a higher percentage of the available oil. It involves emerging the flakes into a solvent, usually hexane, a chemical commonly extracted from petroleum and crude oil. Hexane is highly flammable and is considered a toxic chemical.

Short-term exposure to hexane can affect the central nervous system and can cause headaches, dizziness, confusion, clumsiness, drowsiness, and nausea. Long-term exposure can result in more severe damage to the nervous system, and can cause numbness in the extremities, muscular weakness, blurred vision, and even damage in the nerves controlling the muscles in the arms and legs, and paralysis.

The resulting flakes are extracted and used for livestock meal or in the production of food products. The hexane is removed from from the oil through evaporators, where it is then recovered to be used again in the extraction process. Hexane in food is not monitored, and it is unclear whether a trace amount remains in the oil, and, if so, how much. The remaining solids are often used for animal feed.

The oil is then chilled and the wax settles (http://www.alohabay.com/people/What-Chemicals-Are-in-Your-Soy-Candles.html). The oil and wax may go through further refinement that may include degumming, alkali refining, bleaching (with activated earth, activated carbon or chlorine bleach) and deodorization (through vacuum distillation) to remove phosphatides, free fatty acids, insoluble matter and gums, odour, colour pigments and other “impurities.”

To make the oil more solid, it then goes through the process of hydrogenation. Hydrogenation involves introducing hydrogen atoms to the oil, usually in the presence of a high heat and a catalyst such as nickel to help break the bonds between the atoms. The hydrogen reacts with the wax to convert some of the fatty acids from unsaturated to saturated. This process changes the physical properties, such as the melting point, so that it is solid at room temperature.

While the hydrogenation helps to solidify the soybean oil into a waxy substance, it is still a “soft” wax with a low melting point that is more suited to container candles and tea lights than taper or pillar candles. This also means that soy wax can be more difficult to ship, since it can melt in high temperatures.

In addition, this raw wax doesn’t hold dyes or fragrances well. Emulsifiers, other hydrogenated vegetable oils, stearic acid, polymers,and other chemically derived additives may be incorporated into the wax to make it harder; prevent or reduce frosting, bloom, and lumpiness; and act as binding agents to help hold larger amounts of fragrance oil or dyes.

When making soy wax, larger amounts of dyes may be needed to achieve vivid or deep colours. Many soy wax manufacturers also tend to prefer using fragrance oils (synthetic fragrances) because they can be designed to be more readily miscible (the ability of two or more substances to be mixed or dissolved into one another without separating) with the type wax. It is also common for soy wax to be mixed with other waxes, such as paraffin wax, microcrystalline wax (another type of petroleum derived wax), or other plant waxes, to achieve a variety of melting points and make it more solid for votive or pillar candles.

Preservatives are also often added to soy wax, since it can go rancid without them. Some individuals have reported detecting a faint rancid smell when blowing out their soy candle.

Soy wax is not inherently better than other waxes simply because it comes from a “natural” source. No soy candles can be said to be “organic” due to the chemicals used in the extraction, refining, and hydrogenation process, but, if you choose to use soy wax, it is still crucial to find one that is manufactured from organic soybeans. The label or manufacturer stating that it is “non GMO soy wax” is not enough; it needs to say that it is from non GMO soybeans.

When selecting soy wax, you want to look for 100% soy with 100% pure essential oils. The candle industry is not regulated, so the term “pure” can still be used to describe a soy candle that is comprised of only 51% soy, and the term fragrance (whether they call it natural or not) means it was synthetically produced. Even 100% soy can still contain a small amount of paraffin, so you want to contact the company about the wax composition and manufacturing process. If they are not willing to divulge their process or materials, then I would avoid purchasing from them and try another.

Proponents of paraffin wax have argued that the production of soy wax may be worse for the environment than other waxes, and that paraffin candles are “recycling” the waste that is produced as a byproduct of the gasoline used for some large farming machinery that is often used in the agricultural industry, such as in the case of soy production.

Most oils can be made into a type of wax, but that doesn’t mean that it should be used for candles or other products that we use on a daily basis. The more synthetic or hazardous chemicals present in the wax product means that there is the potential of them breaking down during the combustion process, when the candle is lit, and being released into the air.

Furthermore, the production of most types of waxes, whether natural or synthetic, can be bad for the environment. It is always important to look into the source of the product you are using, and make sure that you are purchasing from a sustainable company. Most plant-based waxes are also renewable, while paraffin and other petroleum based waxes are not.

Many sources also claim that soy wax is water soluble. This is not true. Wax, by definition, is not water-soluble. Soy wax is made from hydrogenated soybean oil. Oils are not water soluble, hence why virtually any oil can be made into a wax or waxy substance. However, soy wax is easier to clean with soap and water than other waxes. It also has a different character and structure than beeswax, paraffin, and other waxes.

The molecular structure of the soy wax contains various types of chemical bonds that make it more prone to “trapping” fragrances instead of allow them to be readily evaporated. This results in a poor “scent throw.” Scent throw refers to the intensity of the fragrance that is released from the candle when storing (known as “cold” scent throw) or when lit (known as “hot” scent throw). Poor scent throw means the candle has a weak or faint scent.

A well made soy candle does generally burn longer than a paraffin wax candle due to having a lower melting point, or cooler burning temperature. The flame produced is generally smaller. The burning time varies drastically depending on the composition of the wax and the addition of fragrances or dyes, which require a hotter wick.

Another common misconception is that soy wax candles do not soot. All candles produce soot due to the incomplete combustion process when burning. However, properly made soy wax candles produce mainly what is known as white, or clear soot. This soot does not stain like the dark soot produced from paraffin candles and may not be easily seen. The dark soot from paraffin candles has been called “petrol-carbon” soot due to the petroleum and other byproducts that it contains.

Like any soot, the clear soot from wax candles isn’t “healthy,” but it may contain less chemicals than the soot from paraffin candles and does not cause soot damage to walls, ceilings, and furniture. This only applies to soy waxes that have properly sized wicks and do not contain fragrances, dyes, or other chemicals or additives. There is also a risk that any chemicals used during the production process of the wax may be broken down, altered, or released.

The amount of chemicals in a sustainable and organically sourced (from organic soybeans), non-scented or essential oil scented soy wax candle would be less than those in conventional paraffin and other petroleum based waxes.

In the next blog post, we will look into a fairly new wax known as coconut wax.

In the previous blog post, we looked into beeswax, and now we will go into plant waxes.

Palm Wax

Palm wax is a type of plant-based stearin wax made from palm and palm kernel oil. The harvested palm fruit is mechanically pressed and refined in palm mills. The oil is extracted and steam distilled. Then, it is either hydrogenated, or chilled and then spun to isolate the waxes/oils with the highest melting point.

The process of separating the fat from the liquid is called fractionation. The oil is separated into both liquid (olein) and vegetable fat (palm wax). It then goes through further purification to achieve the correct texture.

Because palm oil is steamed distilled, it does not require harsh solvents and other harmful chemicals such as hexane, which is used in soybean refining. The exact refining process and chemicals used depends on the manufacturer.

The resulting wax is relatively smooth and hard, and bright-burning. It can also produce a distinct crystalline or feathering pattern or effect on the finished candle.

This type of wax has gained interest due to the increased “safety” of the refining process and the fact it is considered a renewable resource, but has led to controversy due to the effects of palm oil harvesting on the environment and and wildlife. Palm oil harvest contributes to mass deforestation and destruction of the environment and animal habitats, mainly in Malaysia and Indonesia. It is difficult to find a source of palm oil products that is truly sustainable.

Thermally oxidized (refined) palm oil (the oil is repeatedly subjected to high heat) is high in saturated fats, low in polyunsaturated fats, and can have adverse health effects on the body when consumed. Due to the effect of palm oil production on the environment and the health risks associated with consuming refined palm oil, some consumers may prefer to choose another type of wax rather than promote the palm oil industry.

If you choose to use palm wax, look for food grade palm oil that comes from plantations that are certified for using only sustainable, organic agricultural practices.

Carnauba

Carnauba wax, also known as Brazil wax, is a type of palm wax made from the leaves of the Brazilian palm tree, Copernica Cerifera. The plant naturally secretes the wax to maintain hydration and protect the leaves from damage. Only the Carnauba palms grown in the northeastern region of Brazil have this wax.

The leaves are collected and dried, and then beaten or scraped to loosen the powdery wax. The resulting wax flakes are melted, filtered, bleached, and moulded into blocks and cooled. There are several grades of carnauba wax depending on its “purity level,” or the level of refining and bleaching. A version of the wax is also available where water is used as the extraction agent.

In its pure state, it is a solid that has a yellow to yellow-brown colour. The colour and quality may vary depending on the age of the leaves and the handling in the production process. The wax is not readily soluble and usually needs additional ingredients such as solvents or oils to make it into a liquid form for use in making products.

It is extremely hard (one of the hardest naturally occurring waxes), durable, has a higher melting point than other waxes, and can produce a glossy finish. It is used in numerous applications such as in candles, candies, polishes, varnishes, printing inks, and cosmetic, dental and pharmaceutical products to provide a polish or coating or act as a hardening or gelling agent. It may also be combined with other waxes to improve their strength. In many applications it has been replaced by cheaper synthetics, but it is still frequently used.

Carnauba wax is considered biodegradable and sustainable since, if harvested properly, the leaves regrow. However, if purchasing carnauba wax, it is still important to obtain it from a source that is committed to sustainable, organic practices and the conservation of the carnauba palm. The palm tree needs time to reach full productivity, and the leaves need time to grow back. The wax may also be more expensive.

Bayberry Wax

Bayberry wax, also sometimes referred to as myrtle wax, is a green (or olive-coloured) vegetable wax derived from the fruit of the American bayberry bush or English bog myrtle. The process of obtaining the wax has not changed much since its discovery by America’s Colonial women. The berries are boiled, causing their waxy coating to be released. The wax is then skimmed from the surface of the water and left to harden.

This process can be tedious and it can take anywhere from 4 to 15 pounds of berries to produce one pound of wax. Bayberry wax also has its own distinct, earthy aroma that is woodsy, warm and spicy. The aroma makes it a popular wax for use in taper and pillar candles and for use at Christmastime. It can also be mixed with other waxes to provide a natural scent to other waxes, or to strengthen the bayberry wax. The unique scent does not appeal to everyone, however, and cannot be overridden, hidden, or successfully blended with other fragrances.

It is considered a good vegan substitute to beeswax, though it is more expensive and more brittle. Candles made from pure bayberry wax may break easier.

In the next blog post, we will look into soy wax.

In the previous blog post of this series, we looked into paraffin wax, tallow, and stearin wax. In this blog post, we will look into another popular animal wax: beeswax.

Beeswax

As the name implies, beeswax is made from wax produced by bees. It is relatively soft and stickier than other waxes. There are two main types of beeswax candles: solid beeswax and honeycomb wax. Solid beeswax candles can be made by melting the capping wax or an empty comb in boiling water and then pouring into a mould, or by continuously dipping a wick into the melted wax. The dipping method is used to create taper candles.

Cappings or capping wax is a thin layer of beeswax that seals or “caps” the honey in each comb. This is considered the best type of beeswax for candle making. The process of removing the caps is known as uncapping. There are various methods for uncapping, but it usually involves heating the honey and then using a thin, hot knife to cut off the caps on both sides of the cells (individual combs) so that they fall into a basket.

After the cappings are removed and the honey extracted, the empty combs may be left (returned to the bees) so that they don’t have to make more, or they can be broken down and melted. Combs contain more pollen, propolis (bee resin; a resinous compound produced by bees), and bee bits and usually requires more filtration. Solid beeswax is known for having a relatively high melting point, which translates into a longer burn time.

For honeycomb beeswax candles, a sheet of honeycomb texture wax is rolled. This method creates a looser structure with more air, and results in a faster burning candle.

The exact composition, colour, and scent depends on the geographic location and diet (nearby crop) of the bees. Pesticides, herbicides, or other chemicals used on the crop that the bees feed on and pollinate play a major role in the health of the bees and the quality of the honey and wax. Raw beeswax generally has a golden colour, though white wax can also be obtained through bleaching. The bleaching process may use toxic compounds. For this reason, many candle makers or manufacturers choose not to do it.

In candles, the strong honey scent may not blend well with other fragrances and may mask other scents. Bleached or chemically altered beeswax may not contain as strong of a smell, or may have a medicinal smell. Even without the strong scent, the wax may still not blend well with other fragrance oils and may end up with a poor scent throw. Scent throw refers to the strength and radius of the fragrances emitted from the candle.

Worker bees are sterile female bees who support the hive by collecting food, feeding larvae, and maintaining the structure of the honeycombs. Foraging worker bees go out and collect nectar and pollen. This nectar is ingested, where it mixes with special enzymes in the bees’ saliva, and then stored in a nectar “sac” (also called a pollen pouch or honey stomach) that is separate from their food stomach.

Once the sac or stomach is full (a load that is close to the bee’s own weight), she returns to the hive, where the nectar may be directly deposited into the cells of the comb or transferred tongue-to-tongue to one or more of the younger hive worker bees. Most of the nectar will thicken and become honey through a process of evaporation (dehydration), but some will be turned into beeswax. How often the nectar is transferred depends on the moisture content. It is usually passed on until the moisture content is reduced by around 70% to 80%.

Young hive worker bees have developed special wax producing glands on their abdomens. After consuming the honey or nectar, the wax producing glands convert the sugar into wax. The wax is extruded as small flakes through tiny pores. The bees then chew the flakes with more honey to make them soft and malleable for shaping into honeycombs. These honeycombs consist of hexagon (six-sided) shaped cylinders that fit side by side. This is the most efficient shape for the storage of honey, using the least amount of wax to contained the highest volume of honey.

The temperature of the hive is also maintained so that the beeswax doesn’t get too hot and melt, or too low or cold, where it becomes brittle.

These combs serve as storage for honey and nectar and a place to raise their brood. The stored honey provides food for the next generation of bees and acts as winter food stores, to provide nourishment during the cold months when nectar cannot be collected.

Once a cell is full of honey or nectar, the bees add a layer of wax over the cell to seal it. This creates an airtight container that allows the honey to keep for a long time.

A bee needs to consume approximately 6 to 8 pounds of nectar or honey to produce a pound of wax. A queen honey bee may live for three to four years, though domesticated honey queen bees may have a shorter lifespan to due some beekeepers “re-queening” the hive frequently, while a worker bee has a lifespan of only five to seven weeks during the colony’s active season.

The worker bees continuously work to collect nectar, produce honey, clean cells, guard the hive, build and repair combs, and feed and care for the larvae.

It is due to the hardworking nature of bees that many people choose not to use beeswax. They feel that it is a form of animal exploitation, and that using the honey and beeswax is the same as stealing. It is true that, if honey is removed, the bees will work harder to replenish it. It is also true that there are many beekeeping practices that are harmful to the bees.

These bee farmers (many of which are large-scale commercial companies who work to produce enough honey and wax to meet high demands for its use in a variety of food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical applications) may: remove all the honey and replace it with a sugar solution that is less nutritious; move the hives to track seasonal crops which can stress the bees, put them in danger of overheating or suffocation, and expose them to new diseases and pesticides; clip the queen bee’s wings to prevent her from flying and leaving the prime swarm; and may contaminate the honey, expose the bees to harmful chemicals, or burn them through the incorrect use of bee smokers.

While these types of harmful practices do exist, there are also ethical practices that help maintain the health of the bee colony while still harvesting the honey and wax. These beekeepers care about the health and well-being of the bees and will take only the excess honey that the colony can afford to lose, and then leave them the rest. They will also use the capping wax and liquid honey, while leaving the comb intact so that the bees can reuse it instead of rebuilding it.

Allowing the bees to pollinate more crops instead of only one also increases the strength of their immune system.

Smoking is a technique used to calm the bees. This has two effects. The smoke is sensed by the bees, who interpret is as being an indication of a forest fire. The colony prepares to move the hive by storing as much honey as they can. They gorge on the honey and then become lethargic and less likely to sting.

The smoke can also mask the bee pheromones. Pheromones are substances released by an animal that produce a change in sexual or social behaviour of other members of the same species. When a threat is sensed, the bee releases an alarm pheromone to warn the other bees. The smoke interferes with this communication and can confuse the bees, allowing the beekeeper to work on the hive without agitating them.

So long as the right fuel is used (made with natural material such as pine cones, wood chips, and cartons without the use of harmful chemicals), the smoker isn’t too hot, there isn’t too much smoke, and it is used in moderation, then it hasn’t been shown to cause short-term or long-term harm to the bees.

The harvesting of honey and wax has been blamed for contributing to the loss of bees, but it is habitat destruction and the increase in genetic modification, parasites, pesticides, herbicides, and other pollutants and harsh chemicals that play a major role in the survival of the bee.

In addition, bees are important pollinators, but they are not the only ones. There are many other important pollinating insect species such as butterflies, moths, flies, and beetles. Having bees shipped around the world (known as relocation) to pollinate commercial crops for the agriculture industry can do more harm than good. It can stress the bees, and non-native species can become invaders that compete (and sometimes outcompete) with native species and can bring new diseases.

Nevertheless, bees play a vital role in pollination, and beekeeping may help play a role in increasing bee populations.

Many people see the relationship between bees and beekeeper as a symbiotic one that benefits both the human and the bees. The beekeeper can provide better shelter or protection during winter, and in return takes surplus honey.

Beeswax contains natural sugar, water, minerals, vitamins, pollen, protein, and traces of bee enzyme. The fact that honey and beeswax are the products of an animal (the bee) and contain traces of bee enzyme, they are generally not considered vegan. Although they are sometimes referred to as “plant-based animal products” since they primarily consists of plant material, they are ultimately still a product of the bee. For this reason, many vegans may choose not to use either honey or beeswax.

Some claim that beeswax candles emit negative ions that clear the air of pollen, bacteria, dust, mould spores, and other airborne particles by binding to positively charged ions and then making them fall to the ground due to the increased weight. However, all candles have been shown to emit negative ions. There is no conclusive evidence or study to show how much negative ions are released.

The heat of a burning candle will incinerate some of the dust and other harmful airborne particles, but, as a result of the combustion process, will also release carbon dioxide, water vapour, a small amount of carbon monoxide, smoke and any other chemical or volatile organic compounds from added fragrances or colours. While this doesn’t mean that a candle should never be burned, it makes it unlikely that any candle is able to help purify the air.

A properly made, 100% pure, naturally scented beeswax candle is one of the cleanest and longest burning. It is more expensive, but longer lasting than other candles. Over time, beeswax candles may develop a whitish powder that is known as “bloom.” This bloom occurs in pure cappings beeswax and is the result of natural components of the wax migrating to the surface, where they eventually crystallize. This effect is more likely to occur when the wax has been subjected to many temperature changes, and can be removed by buffing the candle with a soft cloth or by using a blow dryer on low setting.

Beeswax candles have been considered hypoallergenic and are virtually dripless. Organic beeswax cannot truly exist since the bees are free to travel wherever they want to collect the nectar and there is no way to completely monitor them. Having the hive located near organically grown crops, though, does help protect the bees and decreases their exposure to harmful chemicals.

In the next blog post in this series, we will look into plant based waxes.